परिमाण-गुरुत्व-उद्याम/गमन ।

ON MASS, WEIGHT AND GRAVITY.

 

Why does a coin sink in water but a massive metal ship float on the surface of water? Why ice floats on water? Why the apple falls to the ground? These are very important question often overlooked and explained using terms like “Buoyancy”, “surface area” and “water displacement”, etc., which do not explain the right mechanism. Most often fall is wrongly ascribed to gravity. Gravity is universal. In space, there is no direction – no concept of up or down - only reference objects. Hence, the concept of “fall” does not apply to gravity. It is often said that inertial motion occurs when objects are in free-fall. But, there is nothing like “free” fall. It is only motion that is generated due to application of some force. As

नान्याधारः स्वशक्त्यैव वियति नियतं तिष्ठतीह .. ।। तथा -

आकृष्टशक्तिश्च मही तया यत् स्वस्थं गुरु स्वाभिमुखं स्वशक्तया ।

आकृष्यते तप्तततीवभाति समे समन्तात् क्व पतत्वीयं खे ।। सिद्धान्तशिरोमणि - गोलाध्याय - भुवनकोशः ।।

 

The confined bodies attract unsupported other bodies due to reasons not being discussed now (it will divert from the main subject). This appears as fall. But the astral bodies are held by gravity. Hence, they do not fall. The proper science according to Kanada, as explained by Prashastapada, is described here.

 

I have often explained that weight (गुरुत्व) is not mass (वयोनाध) multiplied by acceleration due to gravity (उद्याम/गमन), because weighing requires a balance, with the object to be measured and the unit weight being placed on both sides of the balance. Gravity affects both sides of the balance equally cancelling out the effect. Hence, multiplying mass by gravity is superfluous, as both sides have to be multiplied by the same factor. It is like telling 2A = 2B, instead of telling A=B. All objects weigh the same everywhere in the universe. A stone weighing 1 kg will weigh 1 kg on Moon or Neptune or Andromeda or inside a black hole and not less or more. Similarly, fall (अपक्षेपण) is different from gravitation (गमन).

 

Mass (वयोनाध) and density (वय - सान्द्रता - अदिँ बन्ध॑ने, अन्द्रेण निबिडबन्धनेन सह वर्तते) are not the same as weight (गुरुत्व - गॄ नि॒गर॑णे). The description of an object (स्वरूपलक्षणम्) is possible only through two boundary conditions (तटस्थलक्षणम्). The fundamental boundary conditions could only be a pair of expansive-compressive forces (अग्निषोमात्मकः) as pulsation (स्पन्द) implies expansion-compression. When two equal and opposite forces interact (तुल्यबल विरोधः) on the same body, the action that starts could only be spinning, because two equal and opposite forces cannot displace the position of an object. Simultaneously, they must generate some action, as energy is never without any motion. This gives rise to spin. All objects are bundles of spinning energy confined between positive and negative charges or orientations (चन्द्रार्कमध्यस्था शक्तिर्यत्रस्था तत्र बन्धनम् - योगकुण्डलिन्युपनिषत् – 3/7).

 

The nature of energy (शक्तिः) is to move everything (श॒कँ॑ विभा॑षितो॒ मर्ष॑णे). In a weak field, it moves on generating waves (कम्प). But on strong fields or when obstructed, it consolidates (चिति) that leads to confinement and structure formation. Confined energy generates stress on its confinement. The net stress so generated leading to total spread of the object is called mass (वयोनाध). It is related to density (घनत्व - सान्द्रता) and inversely to volume (आयतनम्) – the more dense objects are more massive, but less voluminous. This is because when there is more energy, it generates heat (अग्निर्वा अपामायतनम्) that leads to expansion. But when the binding energy exceeds (चन्द्रमा वा अपामायतनम्), it leads to more contractions. Knowing about the mechanism of volume can lead to the knowledge of evolution, creation and structure formation (योऽपां पुष्पं वेद । पुष्पवान् प्रजावान् पशुमान् भवति – तैत्तिरीयारण्यकम् । पुष्पँ वि॒कस॑ने).

 

Weight (गुरुत्व) is the stress experienced by the base (प्रतिष्ठा) that tries to take in (निगरण) the less dense objects into it while retaining its own density and volume (त्यक्तेन भुञ्जिथा - ईशावास्यम्) in a relationship of the container and the contained (आधाराधेयसम्बन्धः). It causes downward motion or fall (पतनक्रिया) in solids (पृथ्वी) and liquids (जल). It creates displacement from lighter base (शरीरावयवेषु तत्सम्बन्धेषु च यदूर्ध्वभाग्भिः प्रदेशैः विभागकारणम्) to couple with more massive base (अधोभाग्भिश्च प्रदेशैः संयोगकारणम्) and is created by weight (कर्मोत्पद्यते गुरुत्व), application of force (प्रयत्न) or division (विभागेभ्यः). A stone held under water, feels lighter, because density of its base (water) is higher than water. The same stone will feel heavier on a hill top, where the density of air is lower than on sea level.

 

Prashastapada says: “Change of motion is proportional to the impressed force and is in the direction of the force” (वेगो .... निमित्तापेक्षात् कर्मणो जायते नियतदिक क्रियाप्रबन्धहेतुः). This is same as Newton’s second law of motion (the other laws are also there in a much more advanced form). In the case of the apple, when the strength of the force that held the apple to the stem weakens, it falls in the downward direction and the fall continues till it finds a denser base (संयोगाभावे गुरुत्वात् पतनम् ॥ कणादसूत्रम् - ५।१।७, संस्काराभावे गुरुत्वात् पतनम् -५।१।१८, अपां संयोगाभावे गुरुत्वात् पतनम् - ५।२।३). Some people misinterpret it as gravitation, which is wrong. Gravity is related to variable motion (अनियतदेशे गमनम्) – not attraction.

 

A coin is denser because it has a higher mass to volume ratio. A massive metal ship is less dense, because its mass to volume ratio is comparatively low than a coin. All solids and liquids have a property called penetrability (called विष्टम्भकत्व -VISHTAMBAKATWA in ancient India), where a denser object penetrates less dense objects. The less dense ship (considering total mass spread over total volume) can’t penetrate the denser water (total mass of water spread over total volume displaced by the ship). Hence the ship floats. The coin is denser than water. Hence it sinks till it finds a denser base to rest. Ice is less dense because the mass to volume ratio is less than water. Hence it can’t penetrate water. It floats.

 

It has important implications for the motion (गमन) called gravity (उद्याम). The weight (गुरुत्व) and mass (वयोनाध) - and not gravity - cause the apple to fall. The apple was held by the stem because it was held tightly by a binding force (like the strong interaction of particle physics). Due to ripening, the bond between the apple and the stem becomes loose and weak. After a critical point, it is unable to hold the apple and like in beta decay, the apple is ejected (संयोगाभावे गुरुत्वात् पतनम्). Since the air is less dense than the apple, the apple falls till it finds a denser base.

 

Gravity is not an attractive force (like strong nuclear interaction) or the apple falling to Earth (संस्काराभावे गुरुत्वात् पतनम्), because planets and satellites do not fall like that (आकृष्टिशक्तिश्च मही तया यत् स्वस्थं गुरु स्वाभिमुखं स्वशक्तया). Nor is it a repulsive force (like alpha decay). It involves stabilization (स्थैर्य) of two orbiting bodies at maximum permissible distance against a common barycenter (उरुगायप्रतिष्ठा) based on their relatively fast or slow motion, apogee/perigee/declination and point of intersection between their orbits. As the Surya Siddhanta says:

अदृश्यरूपाः कालस्य मूर्त्तयो भगणाश्रिताः ।

शीघ्रमन्दोच्चपाताख्या ग्रहाणां गतिहेतवः ।।

 

Hence gravity is the variable motion in generally circular paths with a fluctuating or moving center (यदनियतदिक्प्रदेशसंयोगविभागकारणम्). In fact, it is the mother of all motions. The strong interaction, beta decay, electromagnetic interaction and alpha decay – all arise from and are special cases of gravitation moving bodies in specific directions (तेषामुदाद्युपसर्गविशेषात् प्रतिनियतदिग्विशिष्टकार्यारम्भत्वादुपलक्षणभेदोऽपि सिद्धः). It has nothing to do with Equivalence Principle, which is a wrong description of reality.

 

For example, if a person A is sitting in the first floor of a shopping mall and watching B move in a lift from that floor, A will see B exiting first floor. If B lands in fourth floor, C sitting there will find B entering that floor. Since B is the same person and his movement in the lift is the same action, both entry and exit are relative words depending upon the observer (निष्क्रमणप्रवेशनादिष्वपि कार्यभेदात् तेषु प्रत्ययानुवृत्तिव्यावृत्ती इति चेत्). But this is a wrong description of reality (निष्क्रमणादीनां जातिभेदात् प्रत्ययानुवृत्तिव्यावृत्तौ जातिसङ्करः प्रसज्यते). Suppose the lift has glass panels, through which a person D standing in the landing of the building could see the entire motion. Then D will describe this motion as neither entry nor exit. He will describe it as motion of B from first floor to fourth floor (द्वयोर्द्रष्ट्रोरेकस्मादपवरकादपवरकान्तरं गच्छतोयगपन्निष्क्रमणप्रवेशनप्रत्ययौ दृष्टौ तथा द्वारप्रदेशे प्रविशति निष्क्रमतीति च). This is an unambiguous statement without relativity, which satisfies all observations. Hence Equivalence Principle of relativity is a wrong description of reality (जातिसङ्करः प्रसङ्गः).

 

According to the theory of General Relativity, gravity is space-time curvature. This is a totally wrong interpretation. Space and time are unique by themselves – without comparable. They arise from our concepts of sequence and interval (परत्वापरत्व - परपरव्यतिकर). The sequential intervals (अन्तराल) between objects is space and that between events is time. Our ancients defined space as: i) the interval between objects described by the ordered sequence of the boundary objects (देशभेदप्रकल्पनात्), or ii) the background or the universal field that contains all objects (आधारशक्तिः प्रथमा सर्वसंयोगिनाम्). Objects can be only in one place at a time. The same object can be at different positions at different times and different objects can occupy adjacent positions at the same time. But many events can take place at the same time or at different times at different intervals (यौगपद्यायौगपद्यचिरक्षिप्रप्रत्यय). Both are infinite (विभु) and infinities coexist (सहावस्थान). Hence we call it space-time (देश-काल).

 

Since space and time are mere intervals between objects and events and have no physical features, it can’t have any geometry. They are mental constructs used through alternative symbolism of the boundary objects and events. What is called as space-time curvature, is really a fictional term - the moving away of objects in time and not curves in immobile space and ever flowing unidirectional time. When the apple falls to the ground, the space-time between the apple and the earth does not curve. A bird flying through it at that time or a branch below it does not get affected, shows that the space-time does not curve. Einstein never defined space, time or space-time precisely and scientifically. The use of tensors is also a fraud. More about that later.

 

 

Gravity holds the Universe together, connecting distant galaxies in a vast and interconnected cosmic web. Suppose at this very instant, somehow the Sun was made to disappear — not just go dark, but vanish entirely. We know that light travels at a fixed speed: 300,000 kilometers per second.  From the known distance between the Earth and the Sun, we can calculate that it would take about eight minutes and 20 seconds before we would know the Sun had disappeared. But what about gravity? If the sun disappeared, it would not only stop emitting light, but also stop exerting the gravity that holds the planets in orbit. When would we find out? 

 

If gravity is infinitely fast, gravity would also disappear as soon as the Sun vanishes. We’d still see the Sun for a little over eight minutes, but the Earth would already start wandering off, heading for interstellar space. On the other hand, if gravity traveled at the speed of light, our planet would continue to orbit the Sun as usual for eight minutes and 20 seconds, after which it would stop following its familiar path. If gravity traveled at some other speed, the interval between when Sun was noticed before the Sun was gone and when astronomers observed that the Earth was going in the wrong direction would be different. So, what is the speed of gravity?

 

Newton believed the speed of gravity was infinite. He would have predicted that the Earth’s path through space would change before Earth-bound humans noticed that the Sun was gone. Einstein believed that gravity traveled at the speed of light. If we want to measure the speed of gravity, we need to think of a way to directly measure it. And, of course, since we can’t just “disappear” the Sun for a few moments to test Einstein’s idea, we need to find another way.

 

GR made predictions that gravity can be explained as a distortion of the fabric of space-time - that space is malleable like the surface of a trampoline, which distorts when a child steps on it (static space-time are unstable in GR). If the child jumps on it, the surface bounces up and down. Similarly, space can “bounce up and down” or compresses and relaxes like how air transmits sound waves. These spatial distortions are called “gravitational waves” and they will travel at the speed of gravity.

 

In space, planets orbit stars. But sometimes stars orbit other stars. Some of those stars were once massive and have lived their lives and died, leaving a black hole - the corpse of a dead, massive star. If two such stars have died, then you can have two black holes orbiting one another. As they orbit, they emit tiny (and currently undetectable) amounts of gravitational radiation (?), which makes them lose energy and draw closer to one another. Eventually, the two black holes get close enough that they merge. This violent process releases enormous amounts of gravitational waves. For the fraction of a second that the two black holes come together, the merging releases more energy in gravitational waves than all of the light emitted by all of the stars in the visible Universe (?) during the same time. While gravitational radiation was predicted back in 1916, it took scientists nearly a century to develop the technology to detect it.

 

To detect these distortions, scientists take two tubes, each about 4 kilometers long, and orient them at 90 degrees in an L shape. They then use a combination of mirrors and lasers to measure the length of both of the legs. Gravitational radiation will change the length of the two tubes differently, and if they see the right pattern of changes of length, they have observed gravitational waves.

 

The first observation of gravitational waves occurred in 2015, when two black holes located more than 1 billion light years away from Earth merged. While this was a very exciting moment in astronomy, it didn’t answer the question of the speed of gravity. For that, a different observation was needed.

 

Although gravitational waves are emitted when two black holes collide, that’s not the only possible cause. Gravitational waves are also emitted when two neutron stars slam together. Neutron stars are also burned-out stars - similar to black holes, but slightly lighter. Furthermore, when neutron stars collide, not only do they emit gravitational radiation, they also emit a powerful burst of light that can be seen across the Universe.  To determine the speed of gravity, scientists needed to see the merging of two neutron stars.

 

In 2017, astronomers got their chance. They detected a gravitational wave and a little over two seconds later, orbital observatories detected gamma radiation, which is a form of light, from the same location in space originating in a galaxy located 130 million light years away. Finally, astronomers found what they needed to determine the speed of gravity.

 

The merging of two neutron stars emits both light and gravitational waves at the same time, so if gravity and light have the same speed, they should be detected on Earth at the same time. Given the distance of the galaxy that housed these two neutron stars, we know that the two types of waves had traveled for about 130 million years and arrived within two seconds of one another. 

 

So, that’s the answer. Gravity and light travel at the same speed, determined by a precise measurement. It validates Einstein once again, and it hints at something profound about the nature of space. Scientists hope one day to fully understand why these two very different phenomena have identical speeds.

 

 

The paper talks about gravitational radiation. Radiation is energy emitted from a source, such as heat or light from the sun, microwaves from an oven, X rays from an X-ray tube and gamma rays from radioactive elements.

 

There are three known types of radioactive emission: alpha, beta and gamma radiation. Is gravitational radiation a fourth type of radiation? Kindly prove if yes. If there is no proof, why use such loose words to misguide?

 

Radiation is associated with heat transfer. Ionizing radiation can remove electrons from the atoms, i.e. it can ionize atoms. Other radiation heats up objects that come in contact with it. Does gravitational wave do that? If not, why not?

 

When two objects collide, they could fuse into each other (like a magnet and a piece of iron) or scatter. If they scatter, the medium also scatters like a stone thrown into a pond or protons in a collider. Can the wave generated when a stone is thrown into water be classified as gravitational wave? If not, why not? Here, the particle itself is not scattered. It just sinks due to relative density.

 

When particles collide in a collider at great speed, the particle itself is scattered. Does it create gravitational waves? If yes, why it took so long and look at distant space?

 

In spite of superlative terms used to brain wash students and the public to blindly accept whatever is told to them, GR is not so successful. Ancient Indian Astronomical treatises give accurate positions of planets, Sun and Moon. Gerber had solved the perihelion problem of Mercury before Einstein without using GR. Einstein stole Gerber’s work. There are many questions relating to gravity that can’t be solved by GR. Hence, there is world-wide research for a true theory of gravity.

 

GR made predictions that gravity can be explained as a distortion of the fabric of space-time - that space is malleable like the surface of a trampoline, which distorts when a child steps on it. If the child jumps on it, the surface bounces up and down. Similarly, space can “bounce up and down” or compresses and relaxes like how air transmits sound waves. These spatial distortions are called “gravitational waves” and they will travel at the speed of gravity.

 

Einstein got the idea of space-time curvature from his teacher Minkwoski, who was trying to solve the problem of curvature of metal plates when heated. If gravity is space-time curvature, what “heats up” the fabric? If it is like a trampoline, the boy is outside of it. That would mean, gravity is not all pervasive. There can be space-time beyond the influence of gravity. Then the question is can it be a continuum? If yes, how? If not, what is gravity? Einstein has fooled generations. Let us use our mind independently to find out the truth.

 

 

 

Gravity is something all of us are familiar with from our first childhood experiences. You drop something – it falls. And the way physicists have described gravity has also been pretty consistent – it’s considered one of the four main forces or “interactions” of nature and how it works has been described by Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity all the way back in 1915.

 

But Professor Erik Verlinde, an expert in string theory from the University of Amsterdam and the Delta Institute of Theoretical Physics, thinks that gravity is not a fundamental force of nature because it’s not always there. Instead it’s “emergent” – coming into existence from changes in microscopic bits of information in the structure of spacetime. Verlinde first articulated this groundbreaking theory in his 2010 paper, which took on the laws of Newton and argued that gravity is “an entropic force caused by changes in the information associated with the positions of material bodies”.  He famously stated then that “gravity is an illusion”. Of course gravity is not an illusion in the sense that we know that things fall. Most people, certainly in physics, think we can describe gravity perfectly adequately using Einstein’s General Relativity. But it now seems that we can also start from a microscopic formulation where there is no gravity to begin with, but you can derive it. This is called ‘emergence’.

 

What’s more, the Dutch professor now published an elaboration of his previous work in “Emergent Gravity and the Dark Universe”, which argues there’s no “dark matter” – a mysterious kind of matter that along with dark energy theoretically makes up 95% of the universe, but has not really been discovered yet. Dark matter alone is thought to account for nearly 27% of the universe’s mass-energy. There has undoubtedly been something scientifically disconcerting about giving so much significance to a force that’s never been detected directly. Its existence has only been inferred through gravitational effects. Interestingly, its existence has been first suggested by another Dutch scientist - the astronomer Jacobus Kapteyn in 1922.

 

Does physical reality objectively exist? One way the existence of dark matter was used was to explain why stars in outer regions of space seem to rotate faster around the center of their galaxy than theory suggested. What Verlinde proposes is that gravity just works differently from how we previously understood it, and creating the concept of dark matter is irrelevant. He is able to predict the velocity of outer-rim stars and their “excess gravity” within his new theory. At large scales, it seems, gravity just doesn’t behave the way Einstein’s theory predicts. This aspect of Verlinde’s theory was actually tested recently with success by a team of Dutch scientists. One great outcome of Verlinde’s work is that it pushes us further towards reconciling quantum physics with general relativity.

 

 

Even though the equations Einstein introduced in 1915 concern the curvature induced by massive objects, the theory does not offer a simple or standard way of determining what the mass of an object is. Angular momentum - a measure of an object’s rotational motion in space-time - is an even harder to define concept. Some of the difficulties stem from a feedback loop that is built into general relativity. Matter and energy curve the space-time continuum, but this curvature becomes a source of energy itself, which can cause additional curvature - a phenomenon sometimes referred to as the “gravity of gravity”. And there is no way to separate an object’s intrinsic mass from the extra energy that comes from this nonlinear effect. Moreover, one cannot define momentum or angular momentum without first having a firm grip on mass.

 

Einstein recognized the challenges involved in quantifying mass and never fully spelled out what mass is or how it can be measured. It was not until the late 1950s and early 1960s that the first rigorous definition was proposed. The physicists defined the mass of an isolated object, such as a black hole, as viewed from almost infinitely far away, where space-time is almost flat and the object’s gravitational influence approaches zero.

 

Although this way of calculating mass (known after its authors as “ADM mass”) has proved useful, it doesn’t allow physicists to quantify the mass within a finite region. For example, if two black holes are in the process of merging, and we want to determine the mass of each individual black hole prior to the merger, as opposed to that of the system as a whole. The mass enclosed within any individual region as measured from the surface of that region, where gravity and space-time curvature might be very strong, is called “quasilocal mass.”

 

In 2008, the mathematicians advanced a definition of quasilocal mass and quasilocal angular momentum. That is “super-translation invariant”, meaning it does not depend on where an observer is located or what coordinate system he or she chooses. With such a definition, observers can, in principle, take measurements of ripples in space-time generated by a rotating object and calculate the exact amount of angular momentum carried away from the object by these ripples, which are known as gravitational waves.

 

In the 1960s, Stephen Hawking came up with a definition that you can calculate the mass inside any sphere by determining the extent to which incoming and outgoing light rays are bent by the matter and energy contained within. While “Hawking mass” has the virtue of being relatively easy to compute, the definition only works either in a space-time that is spherically symmetric (an idealized condition, as nothing in the real world is perfectly round) or in a “static” space-time where nothing changes in time.

 

Earlier, scientists showed that the ADM mass of an isolated physical system - its mass as measured from infinitely far away - can never be negative. The Schoen-Yau “positive mass theorem” constituted an essential first step for defining quasilocal mass and other physical quantities, because space-time and everything in it will be unstable if its energy has no floor but instead can turn negative and keep dropping without limit.

 

In Bartnik’s idea was to take a region of finite size enclosed by a surface and then, by enveloping it with many layers of surfaces of ever-larger area, extend the finite region to one of infinite size so that its ADM mass can be computed. The argument would not have been possible before the positive mass theorem because otherwise the mass could have gone to negative infinity and a minimum mass could never be ascertained. But its main drawback is a practical one: Finding the minimum is extremely difficult. It is almost impossible to compute an actual number for the quasilocal mass.

 

Some physicists wrapped a physical system in a two-dimensional surface and then tried to determine the mass within that surface based on its curvature. One problem with the Brown-York method, however, is that it can give the wrong answer in a completely flat space-time: The quasilocal mass might turn out positive even when it should be zero. Still, the approach was utilized in a way to bypass the problem of positive mass in totally flat space. They measured the curvature of the surface in two different settings: the “natural” setting, a space-time representative of our universe (where curvature can be rather complex), and a “reference” space-time called Minkowski space that is perfectly flat because it is devoid of matter. Any difference in the curvature between these two settings, they surmised, must be due to the mass confined within the surface — the quasilocal mass, in other words.

 

In 2015, Wang and Yau, in concert with Po-Ning Chen of the University of California, Riverside, set out to define quasilocal angular momentum. In classical mechanics, the angular momentum of an object moving in a circle is simply given by its mass times its velocity times the circle’s radius. It’s a useful quantity to measure because it is conserved, meaning it passes between things but is never created or destroyed. Physicists can track how angular momentum is exchanged between objects and the environment to gain insight into a system’s dynamics.

 

To define the quasilocal angular momentum enclosed within a surface, Wang, Yau and Chen needed two things: a definition of quasilocal mass, which they had, along with detailed knowledge of how rotation works in space-time. As before, they first embedded their surface in the simplest possible milieu, Minkowski space-time — chosen because it is unerringly flat and therefore has the property of rotational symmetry, where every direction looks the same. Rotational symmetry enabled the researchers to define quasilocal angular momentum in a way that does not depend on where you place the origin of the coordinate system you use to measure velocities and distances (the origin is the point where the x, y, z, and t axes intersect). Next, they established a one-to-one correspondence between points on the surface in Minkowski space-time and points on that same surface when placed in its original (natural) space-time, thereby ensuring coordinate independence in the latter setting as well.

 

The trio then joined forces with Ye-Kai Wang of National Cheng Kung University to tackle a problem that had remained unsolved for about 60 years: how to characterize the angular momentum swept away by gravitational waves, such as those emitted as two black holes spiral together and violently coalesce. Their definition of quasilocal angular momentum wouldn’t work for this task, because the measurement must be done far from the maelstrom rather than in close proximity to the black hole merger. The proper vantage point is called “null infinity,” a notion invented by Penrose that refers to the ultimate destination of outwardly traveling radiation, both gravitational and electromagnetic.

 

As often happens in general relativity, a new complication arises: The angular momentum transported by gravitational waves, even if measured at null infinity (or far enough away to be a reasonable facsimile), can seem to vary depending on the choice of origin and orientation of an observer’s coordinate system. The difficulty stems from the “gravitational wave memory effect” — the fact that when gravitational waves travel through space-time, they leave a permanent imprint. Waves will expand space-time in one direction and contract it in the orthogonal direction (this is the signal detected by gravitational-wave observatories like LIGO and Virgo), but space-time never reverts exactly to its initial state. “Passing gravitational waves change the distance between objects,” explained Eanna Flanagan, a general relativist at Cornell University. “The waves can also move observers a little bit … but they won’t know that they’ve been moved.”

 

This means that even if different observers initially agree on where the origin of their coordinate system lies, they won’t agree after gravitational waves have jiggled things around. That uncertainty in turn leads to ambiguities, referred to as “supertranslations,” in their respective assessments of angular momentum. Another way to understand supertranslations is that while neither the mass of an object nor its velocity will be distorted by a passing gravitational wave, the radius of its rotational motion will be. Depending on the orientation of the radius relative to one’s coordinate system, it might seem to be stretched out by gravitational radiation, or shrunk, leading to different possible determinations of angular momentum.

Conserved physical quantities should not vary, or appear to do so, based on how we choose to label things. That was the situation that Chen, Wang, Wang, and Yau hoped to rectify. Starting with their 2015 definition of quasilocal angular momentum, they computed the angular momentum contained within a region of finite radius. Then they took the limit of that quantity as the radius goes to infinity, which turned the coordinate-independent quasilocal definition into a supertranslation invariant quantity at null infinity. With this first-ever supertranslation invariant definition of angular momentum, published in March in Advances in Theoretical and Mathematical Physics, one could, in principle, determine the angular momentum carried away by the gravitational waves emitted during a black hole collision.

 

“This is a wonderful paper and a wonderful result,” said Marcus Khuri, a mathematician at Stony Brook University in New York, “but the question is, how useful is it?” He explained that the new definition is abstract and hard to compute, “and, generally speaking, physicists don’t like things that are hard to compute.”

 

A Unique Choice

Hard to compute, however, is an almost unavoidable feature of general relativity. It’s usually not even possible to exactly solve the nonlinear equations that Einstein formulated in 1915 except in highly symmetrical situations. Instead, researchers rely on supercomputers to obtain approximate solutions. They make the problem manageable by breaking space-time into small grids and estimating the curvature of each grid separately and at separate moments in time. Their approximations can get better as they add more grids — akin to adding more pixels to a high-definition television.

 

These approximations allow researchers to calculate the masses and angular momenta of merging black holes or neutron stars based on the gravitational-wave signals detected by the LIGO and Virgo observatories. According to Vijay Varma, a physicist at the Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics in Potsdam, Germany, and a member of the LIGO collaboration, current observations of gravitational waves are not accurate enough for the subtle differences caused by supertranslations to be noticeable. “But when the accuracy of our observations gets 10 times better, those considerations will become more important,” Varma said. He pointed out that improvements of that order could be realized as soon as the 2030s.

 

Flanagan has a different perspective, maintaining that supertranslations are “not a problem that needs to be fixed” but rather are inevitable properties of angular momentum in general relativity that we need to live with.

 

The physicist Robert Wald, a general relativity specialist at the University of Chicago, shares Flanagan’s viewpoint to some extent, saying that supertranslations are more of an “inconvenience” than an actual problem. Nevertheless, he has reviewed the Chen, Wang, Wang and Yau paper carefully and concludes that the proof holds up well. “It really is resolving the supertranslation ambiguity,” Wald said, adding, “In general relativity, when you have all these alternative definitions to choose from,” it is nice to have a “unique choice” to pick out.

 

Yau, who has been working on defining these quantities since the 1970s, takes the long view. “It can take a long time for ideas from mathematics to permeate physics,” he said. He noted that even if the new definition of angular momentum goes unused for now, scientists at LIGO and Virgo “are always calculating something approximately. But ultimately, it’s good to know what the thing is that you’re trying to approximate.”

 

WHAT IS DARK MATTER?

 

The Friedman equations of the “pressure-less” universe that govern the expansion of space in homogeneous (the same in all directions) and isotropic (the same in all locations) models of the universe within the context of general relativity, show parameters that contradict the expansion of the universe theory - that the universe isn’t static, but it either expands or contracts depending on what the expansion rate and the contents of the universe are. As it was written initially,

Where H = Hubble’s constant, ρ = matter density of the universe, c = Velocity of light, k = curvature of the universe, G = Gravitational constant, Λ = cosmological constant (showing the pressure or negative energy) and R or a = the scale factor or the radius of the universe.

 

If we could detect R or a, radius of the universe, how could we think of expanding universe? Further, we do not know what the total extent of the universe is and what its mass (including dark matter) content is. Then how can we calculate the density of the universe? Λ, H and G are changing with each precision measurement. We can’t know the curvature of the universe. Then how can we work on this equation?

 

Instead of treating the various constants in real numbers, scientists prefer the ratio of the parameter to the value that matches the critical value between open and closed Universes. For example, if the density of matter exceeds the critical value, the Universe is assumed as closed. These ratios are called as Omega (subscript M for matter, Λ for the cosmological constant, k for curvature). For reasons related to the physics of the big bang, the sum of the various Omega is treated as equal to one. Thus: Ω_M + Ω_Λ  + Ω_k + Ω_DE = 1.

 

The three primary methods to measure curvature are luminosity, scale length and number. Luminosity requires an observer to find some standard ‘candle’, such as the brightest quasars, and follow them out to high red-shifts. Scale length requires that some standard size be used, such as the size of the largest galaxies. Lastly, number counts are used where one counts the number of galaxies in a box as a function of distance. To date all these methods have been inconclusive because the brightest, size and number of galaxies changes with time in a ways that we have not yet figured out. So far, the measurements are consistent with a flat Universe, which is popular for aesthetic reasons. Thus, the curvature Omega is expected to be zero, allowing the rest to be shared between matter and the cosmological constant.

 

Galaxy rotation curve is flawed because of inflation (which is wrong. The initial expansion of the universe came to a halt due to bow-shock effect and reconnection took place, which is slowing down speed of light over ages). To determine the rotation curve of the Galaxy, stars are not used due to interstellar extinction. Instead, 21-cm maps of neutral hydrogen are used. When this is done, one finds that the rotation curve of the Galaxy stays flat out to large distances, instead of falling off as in the figure above. This means that the mass of the Galaxy increases with increasing distance from the center. The surprising thing is there is very little visible matter beyond the Sun’s orbital distance from the center of the Galaxy. So the rotation curve of the Galaxy indicates a great deal of mass, but there is no light out there. In other words, the halo of our Galaxy is filled with a mysterious dark matter of unknown composition and type.

 

Gravity is not an attractive force, but a stabilizing force. Otherwise, mercury and other planets would have long ceased to exist. For this reason some people are trying to explain dark matter through MOND. Some speculate hypothetical axions or a X17 particle that may be the carrier of a “fifth force” beyond the four in the standard model, which could explain dark matter. Like the electron, no one knows WHAT dark matter is. But they again like electron, they write umpteen number of thesis on dark matter. In short, no one knows what they are talking about.

 

There is nothing strange in dark matter. It is very close to WIMP - weakly interacting massive particle – except for the higher mass. The WMAP also showed dark matter to be up to five times heavier than normal matter. They are said to interact with two of the four fundamental forces in the universe, gravity and the nuclear weak force. These dark matter particles do not interact with electromagnetism. Some speculate about an imaginary axion. Dark matter is not related to dark energy. Energy is always dark – can’t be seen. It is always inferred from its effects. You do not see solar radiation. You see the reflected radiation from objects. That’s why, space is black and white – the objects are white and space filled with radiation is black. The colors you see in pictures are artificial.

 

Ancient Indian astronomical treatises use two words “atichara - अतिचार” and “Vakra - वक्र”, to describe the periodic acceleration and deceleration (or coming closer) of planets. Something similar is happening in galactic scales also. We have seen not only redshift, but also blue shift. Both can’t simultaneously be seen, if the universe is expanding. The only explanation is that like in the solar system, where the planets sometimes seen as moving away, while at other times seen as coming closer, the universe is rotating against the galactic center, which is seen as accelerating expansion and galactic merger at the same time.

 

Dark matter is macro equivalents of neutrons. Contrary to popular belief, experiments show a residual negative charge in neutrons (this is how they have a small magnetic moment and feel magnetic fields). But they do not appear to feel electric fields. The reason is simple: unlike strong and weak forces, electromagnetism (उपयाम) is an interaction (याम सम्बन्ध) that is imposed externally (औपाधिक) – it doesn’t affect the nucleus. It is like a cloth we wear or a red flower kept near a white crystal that makes it appear red. While magnetic force is directed outward – hence we feel its effect - electric force is always draped on the body (nucleus). Hence, unless we come in contact with it, we don’t feel its presence (energy is dark – can’t be seen directly except through its effects).

 

In my childhood days, we were taught about electricity by comparing its similarities with water flowing in pipe lines. Water maintains its level. Electricity flows from higher concentration to lower concentration area to achieve equilibrium level. The nature of electricity is going out to fill the deficiency – complement. But then it generates an effect that creates a specialized low density area, which is known as a magnetic field. This lower density attracts compatible objects like iron, nickel, cobalt and gadolinium. These are drawn towards the magnet because of the magnetic field created by it and attract materials that have unpaired electrons that spin in the same direction. Other metals do not have this property. Hence, they are not magnetic.

 

Attraction can be of two types: attraction of one by the other; and mutual attraction. When a strongly magnetic substance enters the magnetic field of an existing magnet, it becomes magnetized. Then following the laws of interaction, they try to come closer (Coulomb’s law is incomplete. Two opposite charges mutually attract each other. Two positive charges explode – विष्फोटक - but two negative charges coexist – निरर्थक. A neutral object has no effect on charge, but the charged particle affects it). It has four categories, which are not being discussed now. This principle is universal. When anything tries to approach a neutron star, it would be suck in and feed their mass into that neutron star. If it collects enough mass it would collapse into a black hole.

 

Seeing the similarities between gravity and electromagnetism, some consider both as two aspects of the same force. The forces that involve intra-body interactions can be divided into four categories: some try to get others (like strong force - आत्मस्पृद् – हृद्य - that creates new atoms - या॒ प्राप॑णे); others try to redistribute (वहिरन्तस्तलस्पर्शी - यमँ परि॒वेष॑णे) existing protons (alpha decay) or electrons (beta decay); or neutralize the external density distribution like we adjust our clothes or a crystal getting the color of a flower placed near it (औपाधिक - electromagnetic force - य॒मँ उपर॒मे). But gravity (उद्यामसम्बन्ध) is an inter-body force that combines the properties of all the above four forces (उद्धिर्निधेः प्रतिस्पर्द्धी योग). It is like two wrestlers trying to balance each other by diffusing the pressure of each other (प्रतिदिग्धर्मः). We can see this in planetary motions or in the magnetosphere of the Earth against Solar radiation or even in the diffusion of rainbows.

 

The strong force holds quarks together. Neutrons can interact with an atomic nuclei through elastic scattering. Neutron diffraction is a crystallographic method mainly used to study the atomic and/or magnetic structure of a material. The method is an elastic scattering in which the neutrons exiting the experiment have approximately the same energy as the incident neutrons. Elastic scattering occurs when there is no energy transfer E = 0 (zero peak position and peak width). Inelastic scattering occurs when there is a transfer of both momentum and energy. Hydrogen, the very lightest of the elements – becomes an ideal choice. When neutron radiation passes through the very un-dense hydrogen-based materials (water being a prime example) the low-density material forms a barrier, preventing neutron particles from passing through. Concrete is a relatively cheap material and easy to be cast into variously shaped structures. Its good shielding properties against neutrons and gamma-rays, due to its intrinsic water content and relatively high-density, respectively, make it the most widely used material for radiation shielding also.

 

In this, total kinetic energy is conserved - the energy loss by the neutron is equal to the kinetic energy of the recoil nucleus. In inelastic scattering, the nucleus absorbs some energy internally and is left to an excited state. The nuclear force (strong nuclear force) is a force that acts between the protons and neutrons of atoms. Nucleons are affected by the nuclear force almost identically.

 

 

 

In the beta decay, a neutron transforms itself into a proton by the emission of an electron accompanied by an antineutrino. Conversely a proton is converted into a neutron by the emission of a positron with a neutrino.

Neutrons and neutrinos are two different types of particles. The main difference between neutrons and neutrinos is that neutrons are made of quarks, whereas neutrinos are a type of fundamental particles that are not made of any other particles.

A photon is one quantum of electromagnetic radiation. It has zero rest mass, zero charge, zero spin and no antiparticles. Its energy `E=hv` depends on its frequency. <br> A neutrino is an elementary particle that accompanies `beta`-decay.

 

Event horizon is the limit to our capacity for observation. It is a relative term. The event horizon for WEBB is more than that of Hubble, which was more than ordinary telescopes.

It is not a fixed point or phenomenon common to all. A passenger in a recording train appears smaller and smaller till after some event horizon, he disappears to us. But he doesn't disappear really and may come back in the next train. What is the proof that something like that doesn't happen near a black hole?

Does the event horizon have mass or energy to disintegrate approaching mass? If yes, who verified it and how? If not, what is the mechanism that breaks up mass? Is the mass of a train going behind a vanishing train disintegrate?

If the disintegration of mass near the event horizon releases lots of photons, it should shine like the Sun. Then how do we see the black hole?

Einstein was clever enough not to define space, time, spacetime or continuum. Relativity is apparent and not real. The man on the platform and his friend in the receding train, both see each other reducing in height, while neither really does. The Mercury’s perihelion problem was solved by Gerber without GR and Einstein stole it. He was challenged by Gerber. The mass-energy equation was invented by Poincare in 1900 before Einstein. The bending of light rays can be explained without GR. The initial results of the atomic clock experiment that was published, didn’t prove time dilation. Later, it was fudged by Eddington to prove the theory right. This is a verifiable fact.

 

Einstein defines gravity as the effect mass has on time-space, this is to say that gravity is not a force but an increase in density in time-space, where objects move toward the densest time-space. An interesting point to observe at this is the inertial reference frame of a free-falling object in relation to the formula for inertia itself! The formula for inertia is:

I = m x a

where I is the inertia of the object, m is the mass of the object, and a is the acceleration of the object.

Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist changes in its motion, whether it is at rest or in motion. The greater the mass of an object, the greater its inertia and the more force is required to accelerate it....the point being-  a free-falling object has no inertia yet its acceleration is not 0, hence we need a new formula for inertia that substitutes acceleration for "difference in time per hour?"

 

COLLECTED.

What is special relativity? The theory is based on two key concepts. First, the natural world allows no “privileged” frames of reference. As long as an object is moving in a straight line at a constant speed (that is, with no acceleration), the laws of physics are the same for everyone. It’s a bit like when you look out a train window and see an adjacent train appear to move - but is it moving, or are you? It can be hard to tell. Einstein recognized that if the motion is perfectly uniform, it's literally impossible to tell - and identified this as a central principle of physics. Second, light travels at an unvarying speed of 186,000 miles a second. No matter how fast an observer is moving or how fast a light-emitting object is moving, a measurement of the speed of light always yields the same result.

 

Starting from these two postulates, Einstein showed that space and time are intertwined. Through a series of thought experiments, Einstein demonstrated that the consequences of special relativity are often counterintuitive - even startling. If you’re zooming along in a rocket and pass a friend in an identical but slower-moving rocket, for example, you’ll see that your friend’s watch is ticking along more slowly than yours (physicists call this "time dilation"). What’s more, your friend’s rocket will appear shorter than your own. If your rocket speeds up, your mass and that of the rocket will increase. The faster you go, the heavier things become and the more your rocket will resist your efforts to make it go faster. Einstein showed that nothing that has a mass can ever reach the speed of light. Another consequence of special relativity is that matter and energy are interchangeable via the famous equation E = mc² (in which E stands for energy, m for mass, and c² the speed of light multiplied by itself). Because the speed of light is such a big number, even a tiny amount of mass is equivalent to - and can be converted into - a very large amount of energy. That’s why atomic and hydrogen bombs are so powerful.

 

What is general relativity? Essentially, it’s a theory of gravity. The basic idea is that instead of being an invisible force that attracts objects to one another, gravity is a curving or warping of space. The more massive an object, the more it warps the space around it. For example, the sun is massive enough to warp space across our solar system - a bit like the way a heavy ball resting on a rubber sheet warps the sheet. As a result, Earth and the other planets move in curved paths (orbits) around it. (They should fall). This warping also affects measurements of time. We tend to think of time as ticking away at a steady rate. But just as gravity can stretch or warp space, it can also dilate time. If your friend climbs to the top of a mountain, you’ll see his clock ticking faster compared to yours; another friend, at the bottom of a valley, will have a slower-ticking clock, because of the difference in the strength of gravity at each place. Subsequent experiments proved that this indeed happens.

 

Special relativity is ultimately a set of equations that relate the way things look in one frame of reference to how they look in another - the stretching of time and space, and the increase in mass. The equations involve nothing more complicated than high-school math. General relativity is more complicated. Its “field equations” describe the relationship between mass and the curvature of space and dilation of time, and are typically taught in graduate-level university physics courses.

 

Tests of special and general relativity: Over the last century, many experiments have confirmed the validity of both special and general relativity. In the first major test of general relativity, astronomers in 1919 measured the deflection of light from distant stars as the starlight passed by our sun, proving that gravity does, in fact, distort or curve space. In 1971, scientists tested both parts of Einstein’s theory by placing precisely synchronized atomic clocks in airliners and flying them around the world. A check of the timepieces after the planes landed showed that the clocks aboard the airliners were running a tiny bit slower than (less than one millionth of a second) than the clocks on the ground.

 

The disparity resulted from the speed of the planes (a special relativity effect) and their greater distance from the center of Earth’s gravitational field (a general relativity effect). In 2016, the discovery of gravitational waves - subtle ripples in the fabric of spacetime - was another confirmation of general relativity.

 

Relativity in practice: While the ideas behind relativity seem esoteric, the theory has had a huge impact on the modern world. Nuclear power plants and nuclear weapons, for example, would be impossible without the knowledge that matter can be transformed into energy. And our GPS (global positioning system) satellite network needs to account for the subtle effects of both special and general relativity; if they didn’t, they’d give results that were off by several miles.

 

Time travel has long been a staple of science fiction books and movies. But will we ever be able to build a time machine and beam ourselves backward and forward in time in real life? In some sense, of course, we’re all time travelers: We move forward in time from one minute to the next. But going back in time, whether to avoid some mistake or perhaps to repeat it, is something far more elusive. And for those who yearn to see what the world will look like a century or a millennium from now, the slow tick of your watch as time passes just doesn’t cut it.

 

The theoretical underpinnings of time travel date back to 1905, when Albert Einstein wrote down his special theory of relativity that showed space and time are intimately linked, and to 1916, when Einstein’s general theory of relativity showed that space and time are malleable — that is, they respond to the presence of matter or energy by warping, bending, expanding, and contracting. By extension, this means if one can imagine space being filled with some exotic form of energy, then space and time could warp in a way so that time, as well as space, could bend back upon themselves like circles, allowing one to move forward in a straight line and still return to one’s starting point in both space and time. But even after thinking about the time travel problem for more than a century, physicists haven’t advanced the ball very far. We recognize that while Einstein’s equations do allow for round-trip time travel (at least in principle), other physics considerations probably rule out creating the exotic forms of energy that would make it possible.

 

The first person to write down a mathematical solution of the general relativity equations that described an exotic type of space-time that might permit time travel was mathematician Kurt Gödel, a close colleague of Einstein’s at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, N.J. He presented his result in a scientific paper that he gave Einstein as a birthday present on his 70th birthday in 1949.

 

But just being able to determine that general relativity allows configurations of space and time in which forward or backward time travel is possible doesn’t mean those configurations can actually be created. Since general relativity implies that the configuration of space-time is determined by the nature of the matter and energy within it, one needs to determine whether it’s possible to create the appropriate type of matter and energy in the laboratory. Is it possible? Probably not, but we don’t know for sure.

 

Perhaps the easiest way to understand the problem is to examine the simplest example of a theoretical time machine: a “wormhole” - essentially a shortcut through a curved space, like a tunnel under a mountain (or for our purposes here a tunnel connecting two distant points in space). That’s why I chose this example when discussing time travel two decades ago in my book “The Physics of Star Trek”.

 

So imagine a wormhole one of its mouths moving through space in a big circle, at, say, 95 percent of the speed of light. Now, special relativity tells us that observers in relative motion experience time differently, such that - to a ground-based observer - clocks on a fast-moving rocket ship would tick more slowly than clocks on the ground.

 

Thus an observer riding on the wormhole’s mouth as it zooms through space might determine from his or her clock that the round-trip took a week. But an observer at the other end of the wormhole, at rest in the background space, would look at his clock and determine that the trip took, say, three years. If the second observer then moves through the wormhole and comes out the other end, he or she will arrive to meet his or her colleague at the other end - and discover that the time is now three years before he entered the wormhole in the first place!

 

Are wormholes possible in real life? The answer is … we don’t know! We do know that no stable wormholes can exist if the only forms of matter and energy are the ones we’ve been able to create in laboratories: In that case, each mouth of the wormhole would collapse to form a black hole in a time shorter than it would take to traverse the wormhole. But if it were possible to create some material with very peculiar characteristics — namely a material that was gravitationally repulsive — it might be able to hold a wormhole open against gravitational collapse. And that would bring time travel a step closer to reality.

 

MASS (वयोनाध) & WEIGHT (गुरुत्व).

 

Mass is a measure of how much an object will resist acceleration by a force - is half the story. Suppose a cricket ball is placed on a table alongside an iron ball of the same size. According to the above description, more force will be needed to accelerate the iron ball than the cricket ball. This is correct, as the higher mass requires more force for acceleration of similar magnitude.

 

Now imagine different forces are applied to the two balls to accelerate both at the same rate. After crossing the edge, both balls will fall to the ground (or accelerate), at the same rate, though earlier they needed different forces to accelerate at the same rate. If we ignore other influences, “all objects of different masses fall at the same rate”, which is verifiable science. This fall is NOT acceleration due to inertia (because the direction changes), but due to mass only.

 

The two statements: mass is a property of “how much an object will resist acceleration by a force (break inertia)” and “all objects of different masses fall at the same rate (change direction of acceleration)”, are NOT complementary, but different.

 

Resisting acceleration is resistance to breaking inertia. Inertia is another property of matter, which acts like a shadow force. When a seed sprouts and we see it in light, we also simultaneously see its shadow. Nothing created the shadow – it is due to the property of matter to block everything (here light) following the exclusion principle. For the same reason, inertia resists (blocks) change in state of motion. This explains, why massless particles travel at the speed of light – nothing resists them. Since inertia and mass are two different properties of matter, and since inertia resists acceleration in one direction, but doesn’t cause “fall” (which is in a different direction), it can’t be attributed to mass.

 

Mass is a property of matter, by which, it tries to keep itself separate from other matter - follow exclusion principle. This induces relative penetrability (or buoyancy). Hence, objects with different masses fall at the same rate, because all matter penetrate the less dense atmosphere at the same rate.

 

Mass (वयोनाध) and density (सान्द्रता - अदिँ बन्ध॑ने, अन्द्रेण निबिडबन्धनेन सह वर्तते) is not different from weight (गुरुत्व - गॄ नि॒गर॑णे) in the sense of w = m*g. When we weigh something, we place it in the right hand side of the balance and put a unit weight in the left hand side of the balance. Gravity affects the masses on both sides of the balance equally cancelling the effect. Multiplying both sides with g is superfluous. Wherever we go in the universe, the same effect will be repeated. On Moon, a one kg stone will weigh the same and not one sixth, because the weak gravity will affect both sides of the scale equally cancelling the effect. A spring balance can’t be used without recalibration, as the mark used to indicate the weight under strong gravity can’t be equated to the same under weak gravity.

 

Some say that the unit of mass is kg while unit of weight is newton. This is a wrong concept. Newton is equal to the force that would give a mass of one kilogram an acceleration of one meter per second per second. Per second per second means that its speed is increasing by 1 m/s every second - neither stationary nor constant, but increasing with time. This is contrary to everyday experience. We see the weight in stationary objects and it doesn’t increase with time.

 

However, mass (वयोनाध) and weight (गुरुत्व) are not same. The description of an object (स्वरूपलक्षणम्) is possible only through two boundary conditions specifying the limit (तटस्थलक्षणम्). The fundamental boundary conditions could only be a pair of expansive-compressive forces (अग्निषोमात्मकः) as pulsation (स्पन्द - a periodically recurring alternate increase and decrease of a quantity such as pressure, volume, or voltage) implies expansion-compression. We see this effect in Earth’s magnetosphere and heliopause, where the solar wind is balanced by Earth’s magnetic field and cosmic rays respectively. The heliosphere is known to vary in size – one of the reasons why Voyager 2 took 6 years more than Voyager 1, though it was launched earlier.

 

When two equal and opposite forces interact on the same body (तुल्यबल विरोधः), the action that starts could only be spinning, because two equal and opposite forces cannot displace the position of an object. Simultaneously, they must generate some action, as energy is never without any motion. This gives rise to spin. All astral bodies spin for this reason. All objects are bundles of spinning energy confined between opposite orientations (चन्द्रार्कमध्यस्था शक्तिर्यत्रस्था तत्र बन्धनम् - योगकुण्डलिन्युपनिषत् – 3/7)..

 

The nature of energy (शक्तिः) is to move everything (श॒कँ॑ विभा॑षितो॒ मर्ष॑णे). In a weak field, it moves on generating waves (कम्प - कपिँ॒ चल॑ने) - passing on momentum without displacing any particle. But on strong fields or when obstructed (two opposite forces cancelling each other), it consolidates and leads to confinement; and as a consequence, structure formation (चिति - चि॒ञ् चय॑ने). Confined energy generates stress on its confinement. The net stress so generated is called mass (वयोनाध) and density (सान्द्रता - अ॒दँ भक्ष॑णे, अदिँ बन्ध॑ने वा, अन्द्रेण सह वर्त्तते). It is related to density (घनत्व) and inversely to volume (आयतनम्) - the more dense objects are more massive, but less voluminous. This is because when there is more energy, it generates heat that leads to expansion (अग्निर्वा अपामायतनम्). But when the binding energy dominates, it leads to contractions (चन्द्रमा वा अपामायतनम्). Knowing about the mechanism of volume can lead to the knowledge of evolution, creation and structure formation (योऽपां पुष्पं वेद । पुष्पवान् प्रजावान् पशुमान् भवति – तैत्तिरीयारण्यकम् । पुष्पँ वि॒कस॑ने).

 

While mass (वयोनाध) is a property of the body proper, weight (गुरुत्व) is the stress experienced by the base (प्रतिष्ठा) that tries to take in (निगरण) the less dense objects into it while retaining its own density and volume (त्यक्तेन भुञ्जिथा - ईशावास्यम्) in a relationship of the container and the contained (आधाराधेयसम्बन्धः). It causes downward motion or fall (पतनक्रिया) in solids (पृथ्वी) and liquids (जल). It creates displacement from lighter base (शरीरावयवेषु तत्सम्बन्धेषु च यदूर्ध्वभाग्भिः प्रदेशैः विभागकारणम्) to couple with more massive base (अधोभाग्भिश्च प्रदेशैः संयोगकारणम्) and is caused by weight (कर्मोत्पद्यते गुरुत्व), application of force (प्रयत्न) or division (विभागेभ्यः).

For this reason, astronauts do not experience fall, as they are in space with least density. A stone held under water, feels lighter, because density of its base (water) is higher than water. The same stone will feel heavier on a hill top, where the density of air is lower than on sea level. Fall is created by displacement from lighter base to couple with more massive base and is created by weight, application of force or division of something.

Prashastapada says: “Change of motion is proportional to the impressed force and is in the direction of the force” (वेगो .... निमित्तापेक्षात् कर्मणो जायते नियतदिक क्रियाप्रबन्धहेतुः). This is same as Newton’s second law of motion (the other laws are also there in a much more advanced form). In the case of the apple, when the strength of the force that held the apple to the stem weakens, it falls in the downward direction and the fall continues till it finds a denser base (संयोगाभावे गुरुत्वात् पतनम् ॥ कणादसूत्रम् - ५।१।७, संस्काराभावे गुरुत्वात् पतनम् -५।१।१८, अपां संयोगाभावे गुरुत्वात् पतनम् - ५।२।३). Some people misinterpret it as gravitation, which is wrong. Gravity is related to variable motion (अनियतदेशे गमनम्) – not attraction.

 

While the concept of mass is applicable to gases (which remain together, though sparsely held - विरलावयव) and sub-atomic particles (त्राणुकादि), the concept of weight is applicable only to solids (compact objects tightly held - निविडावयव) and liquids (compact, but loosely held - तरलावयव).

 

In the case of the apple, when the strength of the force that held the apple to the stem weakens, it falls in the downward direction and the fall continues till it finds a denser base. Some people misinterpret it as gravitation, which is wrong. Gravity is related to variable motion between two or more bodies - not attraction.

 

Does mass causes curvature of spacetime? We do not observe in our day to day experience. When the apple falls, IT IS NOT DUE TO CURVATURE OF SPACE-TIME. Because, the other areas surrounding the apple including the branch between the apple and the Earth, or a bird flying through it, DO NOT FALL WITH THE APPLE. They also have mass. Then WHY only the apple, and NOT all these fall due to curvature of space-time? I will discuss it separately.

 

A coin is denser because it has a higher mass to volume ratio. A massive metal ship is less dense, because its mass to volume ratio is comparatively low than a coin. All solids and liquids have a property called penetrability (called विष्टम्भकत्व -VISHTAMBAKATWA in ancient India), where a denser object penetrates less dense objects. The less dense ship (considering total mass spread over total volume) can’t penetrate the denser water (total mass of water spread over total volume displaced by the ship). Hence the ship floats. The coin is denser than water. Hence it sinks till it finds a denser base to rest. Ice is less dense because the mass to volume ratio is less than water. Hence it can’t penetrate water. It floats.

 

 

 

 

The Casimir effect is a small attractive force that acts between two close parallel uncharged conducting plates. It is caused by quantum vacuum fluctuations of the electromagnetic field.

Casimir effect is said to be an attractive force that acts between two parallel, uncharged, closely placed, metallic plates or mirrors in a vacuum. Two mirrors placed a few nanometers apart in a vacuum experience an attractive force. Some point to evidence that gravitational waves induce an attractive force between two closely spaced mirrors could confirm gravity's quantum nature.

In quantum field theory, the Casimir forces is generalized to incorporate the dispersion properties of the medium and used from the theory of molecular forces to cosmology and elementary particle physics, including the bag model and supersymmetry.

Any medium supporting oscillations has an analogue of the Casimir effect. For example, beads on a string as well as plates submerged in turbulent water or gas illustrate the Casimir force.

 

The idea is similar to a universe wide CASIMIR EFFECT on all matter. Here, instead of two metal plates being pushed together, there are "plates" of matter and the expanding space around them, pushing them together.

According to Einstein when the acceleration of the elevator in space increases, gravity increases. The person in the elevator can't tell if he is in an elevator traveling in space or one on Earth.

The force of empty space pushes on all sides, but mostly from the front due to acceleration! The acceleration scrunches up the forces in front. They overlap each other from the elevator accelerating into them. These cumulative, empty space, forces, push back more and more as the elevator accelerates in that forward direction.

1. Remember the rubber sheet analogy? The rubber sheet is space pushing on all sides. That's the force we call gravity.

2. Doppler Effect: Waves emitted by a source traveling towards an observer get compressed.

 

 

The fact that all matter feels gravity introduces a constraint on the kinds of experiments that are possible: Whatever apparatus you construct, no matter what it’s made of, it can’t be too heavy, or it will necessarily gravitationally collapse into a black hole. This constraint is not relevant in everyday situations, but it becomes essential if you try to construct an experiment to measure the quantum mechanical properties of gravity.

 

The principle of locality says that the variables or “degrees of freedom” that describe the changes in each point in space (like the strength of the electric field), can change independently and can directly influence their immediate neighbors. Locality is important to the way we currently describe particles and their interactions because it preserves causal relationships: If the degrees of freedom at one locality depended on the degrees of freedom in other localities, we may be able to use this dependence to achieve instantaneous communication between the two localities or even to send information backward in time, leading to possible violations of causality.

 

The hypothesis of locality may extend to very short distances that are relevant for quantum gravity (because gravity is much weaker than the other forces). To test whether locality persists at those distance scales, an apparatus capable of testing the independence of degrees of freedom separated by such small distances is needed. But such an apparatus that’s heavy enough to avoid large quantum fluctuations in its position, which would ruin the experiment, will also necessarily be heavy enough to collapse into a black hole! Therefore, experiments confirming locality at this scale are not possible. And quantum gravity therefore has no need to respect locality at such length scales.

 

Indeed, our understanding of black holes so far suggests that any theory of quantum gravity should have substantially fewer degrees of freedom than we would expect based on experience with the other forces. This idea is codified in the “holographic principle”, which says that the number of degrees of freedom in a spatial region is proportional to its surface area instead of its volume. A hologram (meaning entire picture) is a flat (two-dimensional) surface that, when viewed, appears to have a third dimension – in other words, it gives the illusion of having depth. A holographic image preserves the intensity and direction of travel of light, and when properly lit, can reproduce a 3D image. A photograph, on the other hand, preserves only the intensity of light. Although we can conduct entire hologram performances, the ability to touch and interact with the display is still a thing of science fiction. The holographic principle suggests that the contents of the universe originate as mathematics encoded on a boundary surrounding the entire cosmos.

 

Particles can display many interesting and surprising phenomena. We can have spontaneous particle creation, entanglement between the states of particles that are far apart, and particles in a superposition of existence in multiple locations. In quantum gravity, space-time itself behaves in novel ways. Instead of the creation of particles, we have the creation of universes. Entanglement is thought to create connections between distant regions of space-time. We have superpositions of universes with different space-time geometries.

 

Furthermore, from the perspective of particle physics, the vacuum of space is a complex object. We can picture many entities called fields superimposed on top of one another and extending throughout space. The value of each field is constantly fluctuating at short distances. Out of these fluctuating fields and their interactions, the vacuum state emerges. Particles are disturbances in this vacuum state. We can picture them as small defects in the structure of the vacuum.

 

When we consider gravity, we find that the expansion of the universe appears to produce more of this vacuum stuff out of nothing. When space-time is created, it just happens to be in the state that corresponds to the vacuum without any defects. How the vacuum appears in precisely the right arrangement is one of the main questions we need to answer to obtain a consistent quantum description of black holes and cosmology. In both of these cases there is a kind of stretching of space-time that results in the creation of more of the vacuum substance.

 

In quantum theories, infinite terms appear when you try to calculate how very energetic particles scatter off each other and interact. In theories that are renormalizable - which include the theories describing all the forces of nature other than gravity - we can remove these infinities in a rigorous way by appropriately adding other quantities that effectively cancel them, so-called counter-terms. This renormalization process leads to physically sensible answers that agree with experiments to a very high degree of accuracy.

 

The problem with a quantum version of general relativity is that the calculations that would describe interactions of very energetic gravitons - the quantized units of gravity - would have infinitely many infinite terms. You would need to add infinitely many counter-terms in a never-ending process. Renormalization would fail. Because of this, a quantum version of Einstein’s general relativity is not a good description of gravity at very high energies. It must be missing some of gravity’s key features and ingredients.

 

However, we can still have a perfectly good approximate description of gravity at lower energies using the standard quantum techniques that work for the other interactions in nature. The crucial point is that this approximate description of gravity will break down at some energy scale — or equivalently, below some length.

 

Above this energy scale, or below the associated length scale, we expect to find new degrees of freedom and new symmetries. To capture these features accurately we need a new theoretical framework. This is precisely where string theory or some suitable generalization comes in: According to string theory, at very short distances, we would see that gravitons and other particles are extended objects, called strings.

 

WHAT IS MASS (वयोनाध)?

 

Matter (द्रव्यम्), as we know from the mass-energy equivalence principle, is energy (अग्निषोमात्मकं जगत्). It is confined energy. But matter is not automatically exchangeable with energy or vice versa. There is a process for such conversion. E = mC^2 shows the spread of minimum possible density of energy distribution over an area equivalent to C^2. That is singularity (सम रस-बल), where the field (अन्तरीक्षम्) and the energy (बल) are at equilibrium and all motion ceases. As a result, nothing can be known about that state.

 

Matter (द्रव्यम्) is defined by Kanada as that, which have characteristic properties (गुण - like color, odor, number, dimension, etc.), and is involved in actions (कर्म), and is the basic constituent of everything from the mesons (द्वाणुक) to the universe (क्रियागुणवत् समवायीकारणमिति द्रव्यलक्षणम्). Properties are defined as that, which is inherent in matter, not having any force to initiate action leading to coupling with or decoupling from other substances (द्रव्याश्रय्यगुणवान् संयोगविभागेष्वकारणमनपेक्ष). Action is defined as that which remains in one object only, is not a property, and causes matter to couple or decouple with other objects independent of any other condition (एकद्रव्यमगुणं संयोगविभागेष्वनपेक्षकारणम्).

 

The fundamental properties are 17 in number with 7 emergent properties. The fundamental properties are form (color that is perceptible during transition of state (रूपम् - रु॒ङ् गतिरोष॒णयोः॑), taste (रसः - रसँ आस्वादनस्नेह॒नयोः॑), smell (गन्धः - गन्धँ॒ अर्द॑ने, अर्दँ हिं॒साया॑म्), touch (स्पर्शः - स्पशँ॑ बाधनस्पर्श॒नयोः॑, स्पशँ॒ ग्रहणसंश्लेष॒णयोः॑), number (सङ्ख्या), dimension (परिमाणम्), separateness (पृथक्त्वम्), coupling (संयोगः), division (विभागः), distant (परत्वम्), nearness (अपरत्वम्), intelligence (बुद्धयः), desire to get something (इच्छा), desire to repel something (द्वेषः), efforts (प्रयत्नः).

 

What is mass (वयोनाध)?  It is not the matter itself, but is property of matter related to dimension. Mass is the property that keeps the matter in one form - its extent, which is described by dimension. Kanada calls it Murty – literally meaning form. This determines density and regulates volume of matter. Anything having mass must have a volume. Hence the concept of mass can only be applied to solids and liquids. Radiations have no fixed form or position. Hence, they are energy moving in a medium. They can scatter the density of the medium. But that doesn’t prove their mass. If you stir water, it also scatters and has inertia. That doesn’t make the stirring massive. It is the force we apply on the rod to stir water.

 

DIMENSION is a property of matter, which retains the form of the matter invariant under mutual transformation of spread – if length is turned to breadth or height. We perceive form through electromagnetic radiation, where the electric and the magnetic fields and their direction of motion are mutually perpendicular. Hence we have three dimensions, which can be resolved to ten dimensions. Since time doesn’t fulfill this criterion, time is NOT a dimension.

 

Weight is the property that determines penetrability of matter through medium of lesser density and causes fall. Hence weight creates a stress on the base, which is measured in the balance. The rolling balls of Galileo took equal time, because they did not create any stress on their base. Weight is NOT mg, because, if you take a stone weighing 1 kg on Earth to Moon, you have to take the unit weight also. Gravity, as it is understood, will affect not only the stone, but also the unit weight equally, nullifying the effect. Hence multiplying both sides by g is superfluous. What we weigh is weight – not mass. Kg is the unit of weight – not mass, as is commonly used.

 

It is said that the unit of measurement for weight is Newton – same as force, where 1 N = 1 kg * m/s^2. This is because weight is wrongly treated as a force. A force is a push (not pull, which is impossible. Nothing can be pulled. It is always a pressure or push from the opposite direction by tying a rope or using fingers) upon an object resulting from the object’s interaction with another object. Whenever there is an interaction between two objects, there is a force upon each of the objects. When the interaction ceases, the two objects no longer experience the force. Weight doesn’t fulfil this definition. If you put an object on a table, the interaction may lead to stability of positions or breakage of the table (if it is weak or the weight is too big). But then the interaction ceases, but the weight remains same. The weight remains same everywhere until the density of the medium changes. A stone under water feels lighter and on a hill top feels heavier. It is not due to gravity. In any case, there is not a single theory of gravity, which is free from contradictions. Hence weight is not a force. But since it is affected by density of the medium, it is an emergent property.

 

Mass is NOT a measure of inertia either. Inertia is a property of matter by which it continues in its existing state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line, unless that state is changed by an external force. In case mass is static, there should be zero inertia – hence zero mass. But we find only objects not in an independent form (quarks, which can’t be isolated or photons, which are tips of the electromagnetic radiation – hence not particles) are massless. Everything from mesons to the universe, have mass. Hence, mass can’t be a measure of inertia.

 

 

 

You are writing what is generally believed and found in text books. But is it scientific? These are mere opinions, because these are neither backed by solid reasoning, nor correspond to reality.

 

For example, # a dimension is a direction in which something can move or change # can mean infinite directions and consequently, infinite dimensions. Then why use two terms? Direction is the location of something relative to something else like this is east of that or that is north of this. This means, the description relates to the arrangement of two objects relative to each other. Dimension is related to the same subject without reference to any other object like “this is a three dimensional object”.

 

#A dimension is defined as an independent direction in which an object can be moved #, also is meaningless. An object moves in the direction in which a force is applied. It has no independence, but is dependent on the direction in which the force is applied. The same thing happens with motion due to inertia also.

 

# space is a three-dimensional dimension because there are three independent directions in which an object can move: left/right, front/back, and up/down # is a wrong description. The objects in space move and not space moves while objects remain static like someone sitting in a car. In that case, we will have independent spaces like independent cars, which is contrary to observation. We occupy the same Earth. The terms: left/right, front/back, and up/down are relative to arrangement of parts of a whole and not independent of each other.

 

Time is not a dimension, because we can’t move forward and backwards in time like we can move in space. You can’t go to past backwards in time. You can move only into future. Even if you move back to the same space, it is in forward time, because you have aged between the two motions.

 

# In mathematics, a dimension is defined as an independent variable. # Can you give me one example?

 

# a dimension is defined as a variable that describes a set of possibilities for an event # is equally misleading. It confuses direction with dimension and I have shown the difference between the two.

 

# Space has three dimensions, time has one dimension, and a point has no dimensions #. These are mere wrong statements without any proof. Objects in space and not space itself have position with reference to an origin. We visualize the interval between the origin and the object as if it (the interval) has a form. We visualize form through electromagnetic radiation where the electric field, the magnetic field and their direction of motion are mutually perpendicular. Hence we have three corresponding mutually perpendicular dimensions that indicate the spread in left/right, front/back, and up/down directions.

 

Since time doesn’t have a form, it can’t be a dimension. Form is applicable to compounded objects starting from mesons to the universe. It is not applicable formless objects like quarks or points or photons, which are tips of a moving electromagnetic field (two fields intersect each other in a straight line and the locus of the straight line in a direction perpendicular to both is a point.

 

When the form remains invariant under mutual transformation: i.e., when length is changed to breadth or height (i.e., confined to the object only), it is called dimension. If it is varies with mutual transformation, such as in objects with reference to a point called origin, it is position. If you exchange the values of x coordinate with that of y or z, the position changes.

 

Inertia is a property of matter by which it continues in its existing state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line, unless that state is disturbed by an external force. In case mass is static, there should be zero inertia – hence zero mass. In case you say a static body has inertia of rest, then mass is with respect to that static body. If the body placed on a table is horizontally pushed by a force, it moves to the end of the table and falls to the ground. Do you want to say it has three different masses during rest, during horizontal motion and fall? Have you measured it? Do you use it in physics? Is there any experimental evidence?

 

We find only objects not in an independent form (quarks, which can’t be isolated or photons, which are tips of the electromagnetic radiation – hence not particles) are massless. Everything compounded from mesons to the universe, have mass. Hence, mass can’t be a measure of inertia.

 

If you say the mass is affected by motion (inertial or gravitational), then how do you measure it?  To measure mass of a moving object, you must move along with it. That way you and your measuring instrument will be equally affected by the motion (inertial or gravitational). Hence, the reading will not change. It will show the same reading as at rest.

 

# inertia; a measure of a body's resistance to acceleration when a force is applied # includes elasticity. In fact, thousands of years ago, Kanada has described elasticity (he called it Sthitisthapaka meaning inertia of restoration) as the third type of inertia. Does elasticity affect mass? Is there any proof?

 

#The inertia of a body depends on the energy-content of the body; energy that co-moves with or is confined to the body# is a wrong description. Once energy is applied, the object moves and the energy ceases to operate on the body. It can co-move only if some other force retards motion like the rails retard the motion of the train due to friction; hence the engine co-moves with it. But that doesn’t happen to a bullet fired from a gun. It is not confined to the body on which force is applied, and which moves on inertia. Hence that is a wrong statement.

 

# Mass depends on confined energy#, is correct. But matter is confined energy. So where is the problem?

 

# matter has other properties other than mass# - yes. Kanada lists 17 such natural properties and 7 emergent properties.

 

#electric charge and spin (other properties that are neither mass nor energy)# is correct. Kanada classifies it under what he says as Prayatna, which literally means group behavior based on inherent components. Color charge, which acts only where strong force acts (it is called Antaryama), has triple complementarity, which determines characteristic behavior of particles. Electric charge is generated out of complementarity of positive and negative charges (called Yosha-Vrisha bhava), which describes the creative potential of an object. Prayatna has two divisions: perpetual and induced. Spin is perpetual Prayatna. There is no physics beyond Kanada.

 

#"Anything having mass must have a volume." This is an assertion and an assumption that is not supported in physics#. The validity of a physical statement is judged by its correspondence to reality. Can you give one example where there is volume without mass?

 

#nor in mathematics#. What is mathematics? It is the quantitative aspect of physics which shows accumulation and reduction in numbers linearly or non-linearly. What is a number? It is a property of all substances, by which we differentiate between similars. If there are no similars, it is one. If there are similars, it is “not one” or many, which can be 2, 3, …. n, depending upon sequential arrangements of one’s. The number sequence increases only as n+1 and decreases as n-1. The validity of a mathematical statement is judged by its logical consistency. Is your statement logically consistent? Can there be numbers without a form, which is described as its mass?

 

#One cannot determine the volume of a body based on its mass#. Correct. They are two different properties of matter. You have to measure differently to get the mass and the volume.

 

# W and Z bosons, as bosons, do not take up space#. This is demonstrably wrong. If they do not take up space, how do you find them? You switch on the bulb in a dark room and the room becomes lighted. You see it. But you can’t see the light like a table or chair that is in the room. This is because they are not fermions that occupy a definite space in exclusion to all others. Light is spread out in the whole room. If you light another bulb, the intensity of light will go up, but still you can’t say which light is from which bulb. They have "collapsed" into a superposition of states. Collapse is not when observes.

 

# W and Z bosons have mass#. No. No one has measured mass of bosons directly. All they have measured is energy. They divide the energy by c^2 to wrongly claim it as mass. Since they are spread out infinitely, they have no fixed form. Hence they don’t have mass. When the radiations emitted by a positive charge is confined by the spread-out electromagnetic field, the point of confinement is called an electron. Hence, you can find an electron, but can’t predict its position. Depending upon the energy content of the radiation, they are confined in different shells.

 

# The W and Z bosons are not ordinary matter, as they are not composed of leptons and/or quarks#. Yes. Kanada tells them as Rhtam and Meson upwards all fermions as Satyam.

 

#A composition of leptons and/or quarks has mass and also occupies space#. Yes for composition of quarks, but not for leptons. Only particles which take part in the strong interaction have mass.

 

ON POINT (विन्दु), FIELD (क्षेत्रम्) AND MASS (वयोनाध).

 

In response to a post, I had written: A field is a region of space, upon entering which we experience a force. Depending upon the nature of the force, the field is named. An electromagnetic force is experienced in some fields. Hence, it is real.

 

As you can see from your projections, both electric and magnetic fields are planes at right angles to each other. The intersection is a straight line. The line moves in a direction perpendicular to both. Hence, it is the locus of a straight line. The tip of a straight line is a point. Hence photon is a point particle. Since a line is a combination of particles, it is a continuous stream of photons.

As you see, the field moves and spins. Hence photons have speed and spin.

 

Mass is the spread of matter, which is not possible for a point. Hence, it is massless. Photons do not have momentum. Though it has energy”.

 

A friend responded as follows: “The point is an imaginary size of geometry in order to establish geometry credibly. A philosophical reflection. What is a point really? An end to a sentence, a beginning to a line. Established mathematically or in scripture? A period is not a comma, so it is declared differently in logic. A period is a beginning, a comma is the continuation of mathematics. Without a period there would be no comma. I now consider you a point in our world. They have no mass and therefore no meaning, no matter how fast they rotate around their own axis. It's all relative, apparently they don't know”.

 

This was my response: A point is NOT of an imaginary size. It has no size of its own.

 

Size refers to the spread of an object, which is its mass. A point is a region of space, from which we perceive an action as starting or ending.

 

For example, when an observer standing on the platform looks at his friend in the receding train, his eyes function as a point – the tip of a triangle, whose base is the height of his friend. As the train moves, the triangle is stretched, which REDUCES - makes the base smaller and smaller, till it becomes a point, after which it becomes invisible. That is the event horizon for the man on the platform.

 

But if we consider the mechanism of radiation: the light emitted by the friend in the train; it is spread in a sphere, the radius of which increases with distance. Thus, every angular segment of the sphere INCREASES with distance, though with less intensity. After a point, the intensity is reduced to zero, which is the event horizon for the man on the train.

 

Mass (वयोनाध, अबच्छेदक) is the spread of solids (पृथ्वी) and fluids (जलम्), which describes its relative or absolute, permanent or periodic spread – Akriti (आकृतिः). The interior – Vyakti - व्यक्तिः, which describes the matter as it is (nomenclature), is weight (गुरुत्व). The classification (जातिः - Jati) is based on the similarity of origin (समयोनि - Sama Yoni). These three along with the frame of reference (दिक् - Dik) describe any object.

 

When the spread (विस्तारः) of the object is fixed and measured from three mutually perpendicular directions, it is called dimension, which retains the form invariant under mutual transformation – if length is turned to breadth or height. Since we see objects through electromagnetic radiation, where the electric field, the magnetic field and their direction of motion are mutually perpendicular, we have three mutually perpendicular dimensions. These are a subset of mass. Extra dimensions are myth, though the three dimensions can be resolved into ten dimensions. I had written a paper on this.

 

According to ancient science, these three: mass वयोनाधः, weight (गुरुत्व) and dimension (विस्तारः) belong to a different classification, which can be said as the fourth quantum number (व्यञ्जकभावः). Spin is a subset of the fifth quantum number (सञ्चारीभावः), of which, inertia (संस्कारः - सं सम्यक् + कॄ विक्षे॒पे + भावे घञ् । प्रतियत्नम्, गुणान्तर-आधानम्) is part. Momentum (दोषोपनोदनम्), acceleration (अतिशयाधानम्) and elasticity (स्थितिस्थापकः called हीनाङ्गपूर्त्तीः) are parts of inertia.

 

Everything in the universe (जगत्) is ever moving. But some motions are not apparent (non-inertial frames of reference), because of some force prohibiting (दोषः) it from free flow (inertial frames of reference). When this obstruction is removed due to application of force, weight, fluidity or contact with other objects (संयोगः), the object moves. Since the magnitude of motion is related to its weight (गुरुत्व) and the applied force that breaks the inertia of rest (प्रयत्नादि), it is inertia of motion (वेगः मूर्तिमत्सु पञ्चसु द्रव्येषु निमित्तविशेषात् कर्मणो जायते). The magnitude is called momentum.

 

Application of force changes the earlier inertia because the body reacts to it in specific ways (प्रतियत्न, गुणान्तर आधान). It is always in specific directions (वेगः निमित्तापेक्षात् कर्मणो जायते नियतदिक क्रियाप्रबन्धहेतुः) and changes the velocity shown by momentum. Hence, it is called acceleration (अतिशयाधानम्).

 

Action and reaction are equal and opposite (वेगः संयोगविशेषविरोधी). In not-so-rigid bodies, the inherent nature of its entanglement (छन्दः) opposes the applied force and the body retains its shape (आकृतिः) like a rubber band stretched. After the application of force, the body becomes deficient in its shape (हीनाङ्ग), which is removed after the external force is removed. Hence, it is called removal of the deficiency (हीनाङ्गपूर्त्तीः). This is a type of inertia (प्रतियत्नम्) of the body. The other type of inertia is thought (भावनासंज्ञकस्त्वात्मगुणो दृष्टश्रुतानुभूतेष्वर्थेषु स्मृतिप्रत्यभिज्ञानहेतुर्भवति ज्ञानमद्दुःखादिविरोधी) – the inertia of mind, as mind acts mechanically.

 

प्रयत्नेन मनश्चक्षुषि स्थापयित्वाऽपूर्वमर्थं दिदृक्षमाणस्य विद्युत्सम्पातदर्शनवदादरप्रत्ययः, तमपेक्षमाणादात्ममनसोः संयोगात् संस्कारातिशयो जायते । ...

मनोबुद्धिरहङ्कारश्चितं करणमान्तरम् ।

संशयो निश्चयो गर्बः स्मरणं विषया अमी ।

 

Since a point has no spread, it has no mass. Since a spread out particle like radiation or air can’t be measured without confining it, they can have no mass. Rotation requires fixed dimensions. Since a point or a spread out material has no fixed dimensions, it can’t spin or rotate around their own axis by themselves.

 

 

VEDIC CONCEPT OF MASS (वयोनाध), WEIGHT (गुरुत्व), OBJECT (वय) & DENSITY (घनत्व).

 

Someone asked: “Can we truly say that matter has mass and occupies space? If there’s no space between matter how much mass could occupy an infinitesimal point of space? What happens to black holes when there’s no space and it’s not feeding”. This was my reply:

 

Every object (पदार्थ) makes sense only then the triplet (त्रिपुटी) of Observer (द्रष्टा), Observable (दृश्य) and mechanism of observation by the conscious observer (दर्शन) is present. The Observer gets the information (प्रमा - perception) as the state at a given moment. The observable is matter (द्रव्य) that occupies space (देशपरिणाम) and is subject to time evolution (कालपरिणाम). The mechanism of observation requires energy to travel to the observable and be reflected back from its surface only (साक्षात्करणम्) to give a space and time invariant (दिग्देशकालातीत) picture (प्रतीती) to the observer. Hence the description of an object has to be examined from the information (अध्यात्म - अव्यय), matter (अधिभूत - क्षर) and energy (अधिदैव - अक्षर) perspectives.

 

The material (द्रव्य) aspect of the object that occupies space (स्थानावरोध) and has penetrability (बिष्टम्भकत्व) into its base, is called weight (गुरुत्व - मा छन्दः तत्पृथिवी अग्निर्देवता). The surface area of the object, which covers the total energy and matter like our skin covers our body (किमाव॑रीवः॒ कुह॒ कस्य॒ शर्म॒न् - नासदीय सूक्त) from which the light is reflected, is called mass (वयोनाध - प्रमा छन्दः तदन्तरिक्षम् वातोदेवता - Latin massa related to massein “to knead”, or messa “eucharistic service”, literally from Late Latin missa “dismissal”, or “Ite, missa est” - which could be translated literally as, “Go, it has been sent”). When mass is fixed and described in three mutually perpendicular directions (since light is e.m. radiation, where the electric and magnetic fields and their direction of motion are mutually perpendicular), it is called dimension (परिमाण, विस्तार, आकारः - आकारेणेदृशेनैव प्रजा मया विनिर्मिताः). The fixed mass remains invariant under mutual transformation – if length is changed to breadth or height or vice-versa (विस्तारस्य यथैवार्थ आयामेन प्रकाशितः । तथारोहसमुच्छ्रायौ पर्यायवाचिनौ मतौ ॥ परिमाणानुसरेण वर्णनीयाः क्षितौ नराः). The space-time invariant information is the description of the object (प्रतिमा छन्दः तद् द्वौः सूर्योदेवता) by a name (नाम).

 

Every object exists in space (देश) and evolves in time (काल). Space, time, information and position (दिक्) are infinite and are related to everything in a similar way (सर्वगतपरिमाण). Everything from mesons to the universe else are finite and are related to few things in a similar way (असर्वगतपरिमाण). The universe is not expanding. Like planets in the solar system appear to move away at times and come closer at other times, we see galaxies moving away or come closer. Only quarks (परिमाण्डल्य) and mind (मनस् - the point from where energy moves to do work) are points that occupy an infinitesimal point of space (अणुपरिमाण).

 

Black holes (शिलोच्चय) are macro equivalents of neutrons (वृत्र) that came into existence before stars and galaxies (द्वया ह प्राजापत्याः, देवाश्चासुराश्च । ततः कानीयसा एव देवाः, ज्यायसा असुराः). This is due to the covering called mass. The interval between the constituent materials in the covering called mass determines density (धनत्व). If the intervals between the atoms are less (अल्पावकाशम्), it is denser. If the intervals between the atoms are more (वह्वावकाशम्), it is less dense. When initial covering (शर्म or चर्म) came after creation, there was no light. Because electromagnetic radiation comes into existence only after protons come into nucleus (योषा-वृषा भाव). When the nucleus radiates and it is confined by the spread out field with negative charge, the point of confinement is called electron. Thus electrons depend upon the protons and move from high concentration to low concentration (औपाधिक).

 

In the absence of light, the covered objects (mass) appear dark, but exists only due to the energy confined. Like neutrons get transformed to protons, electrons and anti-neutrino, stars and galaxies came out of black holes, which are not a single structure, but a composite structure. This is the reason why till date only one isolated black hole has been confirmed, OGLE-2011-BLG-0462, around 5,200 light-years away (like neutrons, they are not found in isolation and decays within a short time). The black hole covers space.

 

Black holes do not feed on neighbors. It covers energy in space to come into existence (आकृष्णेन रजसा वर्तमानो निवेशयन्नमृतं मर्त्यण्च). That is the reason they are cold – contain strong magnetic fields (heat destroys magnetism). But confined energy heats up and bursts out the covering. Neutrons are produced in nuclear fission and fusion. Black holes contribute to the nucleosynthesis of chemical elements within stars through fission, fusion, and neutron capture processes.

 

अथ स्पष्टाधिकारो व्याख्यायते। तत्र ग्रहाणां मध्यमातिरिक्तस्पष्टक्रियायां कारणमाह -

 

अदृश्यरूपा: कालस्य मूर्त्तयो भगणाश्रिता: ।

शीघ्रमन्दोच्चपाताख्या ग्रहाणां गतिहेतव: ।।1।।

 

शीघ्रोच्चमन्दोच्चपातसंज्ञका: पूर्वोक्तपदार्थो जीवविशेषा: सूर्यादिग्रहाणां गतिकारणभूता: सन्ति । ननु कालेन एव ग्रहचलनं भवतीति कालो गतिहेतुर्नैते इत्यत आह । कालस्य इति । पूर्वप्रतिपादितकालस्य स्वरूपाणि तथा च एषां कालमूर्तित्वेन ग्रहगतिहेतुत्वं नासम्भवतीतिभाव:। ननु कालस्य घट्यादिमूर्तित्वेन ग्रहगतिहेतुत्वं नासम्भवतीतिभाव: । ननु कालस्य घट्यादिमूर्तित्वात् एषां तदात्मकत्वाभावात् कथं कालमूर्तित्वमित्यत आह । भगणाश्रिता इति । भगोलस्थक्रान्तिवृत्तानुसृतग्रहगोलस्थक्रान्तिवृत्तप्रदेशाश्रिता राश्यात्मका इत्यर्थ: । तथा च ग्रह राश्यादिभोगानां कालवशेन एव उत्पन्नत्वात् तदात्मकानां कालमूर्तित्वमिति भाव: । ननु दृश्यन्ते कुतो न इत्यत आह । अदृश्यरूपा इति । वायवीयशरीरा अव्यक्तरूपत्वात् अप्रत्यक्षा इति भाव: । एवं च ग्रहाणामुच्चादिसद्भावात् स्पष्टक्रियोत्पन्नेति तात्पर्यम् ।।1।।

 

गतिः , स्त्री, (गम् + भावे क्तिन् ।) गमनकर्म्म । तत्पर्य्यायः ।

(यथा, रघुवंशे । १ । ४ । “अथवा कृतवाग्द्वारे वंशेऽस्मिन् पूर्व्वसूरिभिः ।

मणौ बज्रसमुत्कीर्णे सूत्रस्येवास्ति मे गतिः ॥”)

 

वर्त्तते १ अयते २ लोटते ३ लोठते ४ स्यन्दते ५ कसति ६ सर्पति ७ स्यमति ८ स्रवति ९ स्रंशते १० अवति ११ श्चोतति १२ ध्वंसति १३ वेनति १४ मार्ष्टि १५ गुरण्यति १६ शवति १७ कालयति १८ पेलयति १९ कण्टति २० पिस्यति २१ विस्यति २२ मिस्यति २३ प्रवते २४ प्लवते २५ च्यवते २६ कवते २७

गवते २८ नवते २९ क्षोदति ३० नक्षति ३१ सक्षति ३२ म्यक्षति ३३ सचति ३४ ऋच्छति ३५ तुरीयति ३६ चतति ३७ अतति ३८ गाति ३९ इयक्षति ४० सश्चति ४१ सरति ४२ रंहति ४३ यतते ४४ भ्रमति ४५ धजति ४६ रजति ४७ लजति ४८ क्षियति ४९ घमति ५० मिनाति ५१ ऋण्वति ५२ ऋणोति ५३ स्वरति ५४ सिसर्त्ति ५५ वेषिष्टिः ५६ योषिष्टिः ५७ ऋणाति ५८ ऋयते ५९ तेजति ६० दध्यति ६१ दध्नोति ६२ युध्यति ६३ घन्वति ६४ अरुषति ६५ आर्य्यन्ति ६६ डीयते ६७ तकति ६८ टीयते ६९ इषति ७० फणति ७१ हनति ७२ अर्द्धति ७३ मर्द्दति ७४ ससृते ७५ नसते ७६ हर्षति ७७ इयर्त्ति ७८ ईर्त्ते ७९

ईङ्खते ८० ज्रयति ८१ स्वात्रति ८२ गन्ति ८३ आगनीगन्ति ८४ जंगन्ति ८५ जिन्वति ८६ जसति ८७ गमति ८८ ध्रति ८९ ध्नाति ९० ध्रयति ९१ वहते ९२ रथर्य्यति ९३ जेहते ९४ स्वःकति ९५ क्षुम्पति ९६ प्साति ९७ वाति ९८ याति ९९ दृयति १०० द्राति १०१ डूलति १०२ एजति १०३ जमति १०४ जवति १०५ वञ्चति १०६ अनिति १०७ पवते १०८ हन्ति १०९ सेधति ११० अगन् १११ अजगन् ११२ जिगाति ११३ पतति ११४ इन्वति ११५ द्रमति ११६ द्रवति ११७ वेति ११८ हयन्तात् ११९ एति १२० जगायात् १२१ अयुथुः १२२ । इति द्वाविंशशतं गतिकर्म्म । इति वेदनिघण्टौ २ अध्यायः ॥

 

(गम्यतेऽस्यामिति । गम् + अधिकरणे क्तिन् ।) मार्गः । (यथा, भगवद्गीतायाम् । ८ । २६ ।

“शुक्लकृष्ण गती ह्येते जगतः शाश्वते मते ।

एकया यात्यनावृत्तिमन्यया वर्त्तते पुनः ॥”)

दशा । (यथा, तत्रैव । ६ । ३७ । “अयतिः श्रद्धयोपेतो योगाच्चलितमानसः ।

अप्राप्य योगसंसिद्धिं कां गतिं कृष्ण ! गच्छति ॥”

गम्यते ज्ञायतेऽनया । करणे क्तिन् ।) ज्ञानम् । (यथा, श्रीमद्भागवते । ७ । ५ । ३१ ।

“न ते विदुः स्वार्थगतिं हि विष्णुं दुराशया ये बहिरर्थमानिनः ।

अन्धा यथान्धैरुपणीयमाना स्तेऽपीशतन्त्र्यामुरुदाम्नि बद्धाः ॥”

“स्वस्मिन्नेव आत्मन्येव अर्थः प्रयोजनं येषां ते स्वार्थास्तत्त्वविदस्तेषां गतिर्ज्ञानस्वरूपं विष्णुं दुराशया वहिरर्थमानिनो न विदुः जानन्ति ।”

इति तट्टीकायां स्वामी ॥) यात्रा । (गम्यते प्राप्यतेऽनया इति । गम् + करणे क्तिन् ।)

अभ्युपायः । (यथा, महाभारते । १३ । १४९ । ६१ ।

“यज्ञ इज्यो महेज्यश्च क्रतुः सत्रं सतां गतिः ॥”)

नाडीव्रणम् । सरणी । इति मदिनी । १४ ॥ (गम् + भावे क्तिन् । परिणति । यथा, किरातार्जुनीये । १० । ४० ।

“मदनमुपदधे स एव तासा दुरधिगमा हि गतिः प्रयोजनानाम् ॥”

“गतिः प्ररिणतिः ।” इति तट्टीकाकृन्मल्लिनाथः ॥ प्रमाणम् । यथा, तत्रैव । १४ । १५ ।

कृपेति चेदस्तु मृगः क्षतः क्षणादनेन पूर्व्वं न मयेति का गतिः ॥

“मया नेत्यत्र का गतिः किं प्रमाणम् ।” इति तट्टीकायां मल्लिनाथः ॥

मन्यते इति । गम् + कर्म्मणि क्तिन् । स्वरूपम् । यथा, तत्रैव । ६ । ३६ ।

चरतस्तपस्तव वनेषु सहा न वयं निरूपयितुमस्य गतिम् ।”

“तव वनेषु तपश्चरतोऽस्य गतिं स्वरूप निरूपयितुम् ।” इति मल्लिनाथः ॥ विषयः । यथा, कुमारे । ५ । ६४ ।

“तपः किलेदं तदवाप्तिसाधनं मनोरथानामगतिर्न विद्यते ।”

“मनोरथानां कामानां अगतिः अविषयः इति मल्लिनाथः ॥

कर्म्मफलम् । यथा, भगवद्गीतायाम् । । ९ । १८ ।

“गतिर्भर्त्ता प्रभुः साक्षी निवासः शरणं सुहृत् ॥” “गतिः कर्म्मफलम् ।” इति शाङ्करभाष्यम् ।

ग्रहभेदेन गतिभेदो यथा - “अदृश्यरूपा कालस्य मूर्त्तयो भगणाश्रिताः । शीघ्रमन्दोच्चपाताख्या ग्रहाणां गतिहेतवः ॥” इति सूर्य्यसिद्धान्तः ॥

तत्र तु नक्षत्रभेदेन बुधग्रहस्य गतिभेदो यथा, बृहत्संहितायाम् । ७ अध्याये ।

“नोत्पातपरित्यक्तः कदाचिदपि चन्द्रजो व्रजत्युदयम् ।

जलदहनपवनभयकृत् धान्यार्घक्षयविवृद्ध्यै वा ॥

विचरच्छ्रवणधनिष्ठा प्राजापत्येन्दुविश्वदैवानि ।

मृद्नन् हिमकरतनयः करोत्यवृष्टिं सरोगभयाम् ॥

रौद्रादीनि मघान्तान्युपाश्रिते चन्द्रजे प्रजापीडा ।

शस्त्रनिपातक्षुद्भयरोगानावृष्टिसन्तापैः ॥

हस्तादीनि विचरन् षडृक्षाण्युपपीडयन् गवामशुभः ।

स्नेहरसार्घविवृद्धिं करोति चोर्व्वीं प्रभूतान्नाम् ॥

आर्य्यम्णं हौतभुजं भद्रपदामुत्तरां यमेशञ्च ।

चन्द्रस्य सुतो निघ्नन प्राणभृतां धातुसङ्क्षयकृत् ॥

आश्विनवारुणमूलान्युपमृद्नन् रेवतीञ्च चन्द्रसुतः ।

 

पण्यभिषग्नौजीविकसलिलजतुरगोपघातकरः ॥

पूर्व्वाद्यृक्षत्रितयादेकमपीन्दोः सुतोऽभिमृद्नीयात् ॥

क्षुच्छस्त्रतस्करामयभयप्रदायी चरन् जगतः ॥

प्राकृतविमिश्रसङ्क्षिप्ततीक्ष्णयोगान्तघोरपापाख्याः ।

सप्तपराशरतन्त्रे नक्षत्रैः कीर्त्तिता गतयः ॥

प्राकृतसंज्ञा वायव्ययाम्यपैतामहानि बहुलाश्च ।

मिश्रा गतिः प्रदिष्टा शशिशिवपितृभुजगदैवानि ॥

सङ्क्षिप्तायां पुष्यः पुनर्वसुः फल्गुनीद्वयं चेति ।

तीक्ष्णायां भद्रपदाद्वयं सशाक्राश्वयुक् पौष्णम् ॥

योगान्तिकेति मूलं द्वे चाषाढे गतिः सुतस्येन्दोः ।

घोराश्रवणस्त्वाष्ट्रं वसुदेवं वारुणं चैव ॥

पापाख्या सावित्रं मैत्रं शक्राग्निदैवतं चेति ।

उदयप्रवासदिवसैः स एव गतिलक्षणं प्राह ॥

चत्वारिंशत्त्रिंशद्द्बिसमेता विंशतिर्द्विनवकञ्च ।

नव मासार्द्धं दश चैकसंयुताः प्राकृताद्यानाम् ॥

प्राकृतगत्यामारोग्यवृष्टिसस्यप्रवृद्धयः क्षेमम् ।

सङ्क्षिप्तमिश्रयोर्मिश्रमेतदन्यासु विपरीतम् ॥

ऋज्व्यतिवक्रा वक्रा विकला च मतेन देवलस्यैताः ।

पञ्च चतुर्द्ब्येकाहा ऋज्व्यादीनां षडभ्यस्ताः ॥

ऋज्वी हिता प्रजानामतिवक्रार्थं गतिर्विनाशयति ।

शस्त्रभयदा च वक्रा विकला भयरोगसञ्जननी ॥

पौषाषाढश्रावणवैशाखेष्विन्दजः समाघेषु ।

दृष्टो भयाय जगतः शुभफलकृत् प्रोषितस्तेषु ॥

 

कार्त्तिकेऽश्वयजि वा यदि मासे दृश्यते तनुभवः शिशिरांशोः ।

शस्त्रचौरहुतभुग्गदतोयक्षुद्भयानि च तदा विदधाति ॥

रुद्धानि सौम्येऽस्तमिते पुराणि यान्युद्गते तान्युपयान्ति मोक्षम् ।

अन्ये तु पश्चादुदिते वदन्ति लाभः पुराणां भवतीति तज्ज्ञाः ॥

हेमकान्तिरथवा शुकवर्णः सम्यकेन मणिना सदृशो वा ।

स्निग्धमूर्त्तिरलघुश्च हिताय व्यत्यये न शुभकृच्छशिपुत्रः ॥”

अन्येषामपि ग्रहाणां गतिस्तत्रव क्रमशो विशेषतो द्रष्टव्या ॥)

MORE ON MASS, WEIGHT, GRAVITY & FIELDS.

 

Based on my previous paper pointing out the deficiencies of modern concepts used in physics, some people raised some queries. One was about buoyancy. This is my answer.

 

There is no buoyant force of mass. It is breaking of exclusion (स्थानावरोध) and relative density (सान्द्रता). Less dense medium can’t stop penetrability (विष्टम्भकत्व) of higher dense objects and less dense objects can’t penetrate medium of higher density. In the case of the apple or the wooden log in water with a stone tied to it, when the strength of the force that held the object to the stem/displaced water, weakens, it falls in the downward direction and the fall continues till it finds a denser base (संयोगाभावे गुरुत्वात् पतनम् ॥ कणादसूत्रम् - ५।१।७, संस्काराभावे गुरुत्वात् पतनम् -५।१।१८, अपां संयोगाभावे गुरुत्वात् पतनम् - ५।२।३). Some people misinterpret it as gravitation, which is wrong. Gravity is related to variable motion (अनियतदेशे गमनम्) due to interaction between two opposing bodies – not attraction.

 

A coin is denser because it has a higher mass to volume ratio. A massive metal ship is less dense, because its mass to volume ratio is comparatively low than a coin. All solids and liquids have a property called penetrability (called विष्टम्भकत्व -VISHTAMBAKATWA in ancient India), where a denser object penetrates less dense objects. The less dense ship (considering total mass spread over total volume) can’t penetrate the denser water (total mass of water spread over total volume displaced by the ship). Hence the ship floats. The coin is denser than water. Hence it sinks till it finds a denser base to rest. Ice is less dense because the mass to volume ratio is less than water. Hence it can’t penetrate water. It floats.

 

The nature of energy (शक्तिः) is to move everything (श॒कँ॑ विभा॑षितो॒ मर्ष॑णे). In a weak field, it moves on generating waves (कम्प). But on strong fields or when obstructed, it consolidates (चिति) that leads to confinement and structure formation. Confined energy generates stress on its confinement. The net stress so generated leading to total spread of the object is called mass (वयोनाध). It is related to density (घनत्व - सान्द्रता) and inversely to volume (आयतनम्) – the more dense objects are more massive, but less voluminous. This is because when there is more energy, it generates heat (अग्निर्वा अपामायतनम्) that leads to expansion. But when the binding energy exceeds (चन्द्रमा वा अपामायतनम्), it leads to more contractions. Knowing about the mechanism of volume can lead to the knowledge of evolution, creation and structure formation (योऽपां पुष्पं वेद । पुष्पवान् प्रजावान् पशुमान् भवति – तैत्तिरीयारण्यकम् । पुष्पँ वि॒कस॑ने).

 

Particles are those that can be created (सृजन) and counted (सङ्ख्यान). That is possible only if they are limited (सीमित –देशकालपरिमाणसंवित्सङ्ख्यावच्छिन्नम् समष्टि मात्रामर्यादित) and separately identifiable (देशकालपरिमाणसंवित्सङ्ख्यावच्छिन्नम् व्यष्टि वृत्तमर्यादित). In the beginning of the creation, it is possible only if the infinite expanse (किमावरीव कुहकस्य शर्मन् - नासदीयसूक्तः) is covered (सम्वरण) or uncovered (इयं विसृष्टिर्यत आबभूव यदि वा दधे यदि वा न - तत्रैव) to a limited extent (खं सन्निवेशयेत् खेषु चेष्टनस्पर्शनेऽनिलम् । पक्तिदृष्ट्योः परं तेजः स्नेहेऽपो गाञ्च मूर्तिषु ॥).

 

Mass (वयोनाध) is the manner in which energy (बलम्) is entangled (छन्दित) into one object (वय) to describe the extent of its spread (विस्तार) – the outer covering (शर्म or चर्म). Now it is wrongly identified with weight (गुरुत्व) and weight is wrongly treated as a force (the unit of weight is now newton, which is a unit of force).

 

Mass is a characteristic of compact bodies (वय) that define its extent (संवरण). The content within mass is weight (गुरुत्व). If you take a cup of tea, what you say as “a cup of tea”, is the nomination of the object proper (व्यक्ति - वय), the tea is the classification of the object (जाति) and the contours of the cup is the changing appearance (वयोनाध). Here, nomination is a concept based on the content that has gone into entanglement in a particular way (शब्देनोच्चारितेनेह येन द्रव्यं प्रतीयते । तदक्षरविधियुक्तो नामेत्याहुः मनिषीणः), classification includes the property called weight, and the inner contours of the cup which contains the tea, is the mass of the tea. The concept of mass is not applicable to heat, radiation, force or space.

 

Gravitation is the interaction (उद्यामसम्बन्धः) between two bodies that are at the maximum possible distance (उरुगायप्रतिष्ठा). All factors in the right hand side of the Newtonian equation are constants. Hence the force of gravitation on the left hand side must be constant. Gravitation is NOT a pull. You can’t pull anything. You have to twist your fingers to go to the other side and push from the other side. Push from the opposite direction is called pull. You also tell the same thing when you say “tie a heavy stone on a wood plank which were previously floating on the surface water”. So the additional force is due to the addition of stone to penetrate water. Then where is gravitation? Weight is a property of substances – not a force by itself, though it causes motion (कर्म).

 

Gravity is not an attractive force (like strong nuclear interaction) or the apple falling to Earth (संस्काराभावे गुरुत्वात् पतनम्), because planets and satellites do not fall like that (आकृष्टिशक्तिश्च मही तया यत् स्वस्थं गुरु स्वाभिमुखं स्वशक्तया). Nor is it a repulsive force (like alpha decay). It involves stabilization (स्थैर्य) of two orbiting bodies at maximum permissible distance against a common barycenter (उरुगायप्रतिष्ठा) based on their relatively fast or slow motion, apogee/perigee/declination and point of intersection between their orbits. As the Surya Siddhanta says:

अदृश्यरूपाः कालस्य मूर्त्तयो भगणाश्रिताः ।

शीघ्रमन्दोच्चपाताख्या ग्रहाणां गतिहेतवः ।।

 

Hence gravity is the variable motion in generally circular paths with a fluctuating or moving center (यदनियतदिक्प्रदेशसंयोगविभागकारणम्). In fact, it is the mother of all motions. The strong interaction, beta decay, electromagnetic interaction and alpha decay – all arise from and are special cases of gravitation moving bodies in specific directions (तेषामुदाद्युपसर्गविशेषात् प्रतिनियतदिग्विशिष्टकार्यारम्भत्वादुपलक्षणभेदोऽपि सिद्धः). It has nothing to do with Equivalence Principle, which is a wrong description of reality.

 

For example, if a person A is sitting in the first floor of a shopping mall and watching B move in a lift from that floor, A will see B exiting first floor. If B lands in fourth floor, C sitting there will find B entering that floor. Since B is the same person and his movement in the lift is the same action, both entry and exit are relative words depending upon the observer (निष्क्रमणप्रवेशनादिष्वपि कार्यभेदात् तेषु प्रत्ययानुवृत्तिव्यावृत्ती इति चेत्). But this is a wrong description of reality (निष्क्रमणादीनां जातिभेदात् प्रत्ययानुवृत्तिव्यावृत्तौ जातिसङ्करः प्रसज्यते). Suppose the lift has glass panels, through which a person D standing in the landing of the building could see the entire motion. Then D will describe this motion as neither entry nor exit. He will describe it as motion of B from first floor to fourth floor (द्वयोर्द्रष्ट्रोरेकस्मादपवरकादपवरकान्तरं गच्छतोयगपन्निष्क्रमणप्रवेशनप्रत्ययौ दृष्टौ तथा द्वारप्रदेशे प्रविशति निष्क्रमतीति च). This is an unambiguous statement without relativity, which satisfies all observations. Hence Equivalence Principle of relativity is a wrong description of reality (जातिसङ्करः प्रसङ्गः).

 

According to the theory of General Relativity, gravity is space-time curvature. This is a totally wrong interpretation. Space and time are unique by themselves – without comparable. They arise from our concepts of sequence and interval (परत्वापरत्व - परपरव्यतिकर). The sequential intervals (अन्तराल) between objects is space and that between events is time. Our ancients defined space as: i) the interval between objects described by the ordered sequence of the boundary objects (देशभेदप्रकल्पनात्), or ii) the background or the universal field that contains all objects (आधारशक्तिः प्रथमा सर्वसंयोगिनाम्). Objects can be only in one place at a time. The same object can be at different positions at different times and different objects can occupy adjacent positions at the same time. But many events can take place at the same time or at different times at different intervals (यौगपद्यायौगपद्यचिरक्षिप्रप्रत्यय). Both are infinite (विभु) and infinities coexist (सहावस्थान). Hence we call it space-time (देश-काल).

 

Since space and time are mere intervals between objects and events and have no physical features, it can’t have any geometry. They are mental constructs used through alternative symbolism of the boundary objects and events. What is called as space-time curvature, is really a fictional term - the moving away of objects in time and not curves in immobile space and ever flowing unidirectional time. When the apple falls to the ground, the space-time between the apple and the earth does not curve. A bird flying through it at that time or a branch below it does not get affected, shows that the space-time does not curve. Einstein never defined space, time or space-time precisely and scientifically. The use of tensors is also a fraud. More about that later.

 

Space-time curvature is a myth. Einstein got this idea from his teacher, when he was trying to solve the problem of curvature of metal sheets when heated. But space is not a metal sheet. Both space and time are related to EVERY OBJECT in the same way (सर्वगतपरिमाणम् - अमूर्तः). ALL OTHERS (except position and information) are related to limited numbers of other objects (असर्वगतपरिमाणम् - मूर्तः). Everything occupies space and evolves in time. These four are only infinities. All others may be big numbers n, for which there is n+1.

 

Since space and time are infinite (अनन्त), they can’t curve (वृत्त), because curvature is a measure or amount of curving - the rate of change of the angle through which the tangent to a curve turns in moving along the curve. For a circle (like the radiation emitted by a body in all directions), it is equal to the reciprocal of the radius. For this reason, objects look fainter with increasing radius (साम). Curvature is possible only in limited or finite objects. You can’t measure curvature of air or water, unless you limit them. You can only measure the container’s curvature. Further, unlike metal plates being heated, what causes the curvature? Like the plates come to normal position when cooled, which occurs with time, does gravitational effect reverse in time? The simple answer is NO. Time is cyclic, but not reversible.

 

Zero is something that doesn’t exist at here-now, but exists elsewhere. If I have zero apples, it means, I do not have apples at here-now, but apples exist elsewhere. Had I not seen the apples earlier, I would not have the concept of apples in the first place. Hence, there is nothing like a zero mass.

 

Objects limited in space and time have spread that is perceptible only if they are compounds (from mesons - द्वाणुक- to the whole universe) and reflect light (रूपवत्त्व, अनेकद्रव्यवत्त्व, महत्त्व). We can’t isolate quarks (परिमाण्डल्य), because they are not compounds (एकद्रव्यवत्त्व). Mind (मनस्) is the point from which energy is released. Hence, we can’t see mind. What we call light is really dark (कृष्ण) – we can’t see light directly. We see its effect when it is reflected from some object and infer its existence (शक्तिः कार्यानुमेया हि यद्गतैवोपलभ्यते । तद्गतैवाभ्युपेतव्या स्वाश्रयान्याश्रयापि च).

 

Field (क्षेत्रम् – अन्तरा क्षान्तम् भवति) is a region of space (देशभेदः - आकाशम्), upon entering which we experience a force. The so-called Higg’s field is a myth. In any case, most of the mass comes from strong interaction and contribution if Higg’s field, assuming it is correct is highly insignificant (about 1%). Mass comes from universal principle of entanglement (आर्थिक छन्दः).

 

The universe has two aspects: some are related to every object and most are related to few object (द्वे वावं ब्रह्मणो रूपे मूर्तं चामूर्तं चाथ यन्मूर्तं तदसत्यं यदमूर्तं तत्सत्यं - मैत्रायण्युपनिषत्). Also it manifests itself in two ways: evolution of sound (as described in various Shiksha texts) and evolution of energy into matter (द्वे विद्ये वेदितव्ये तु शब्दब्रह्म परं च यत्। शब्दब्रह्मणि निष्णातः परं ब्रह्माधिगच्छति ॥ - ब्रह्मबिन्दु उपनिषत्). Accordingly, Chhandas can be of two types.

 

I have already described that inertia (संस्कारः - सं सम्यक् + कॄ विक्षे॒पे + भावे घञ् । प्रतियत्नम्, गुणान्तर-आधानम्) is a part of the property of matter (वस्तुधर्मः – quantum numbers) which can be called the fifth quantum number (सञ्चारीभावः – it includes spin, momentum, acceleration and elasticity). The first three quantum numbers are principal, angular or azimuthal (l), magnetic (m) quantum numbers (आश्रयभावः, प्रयोजकभावः, स्थायीभावः). The first three describe the size, shape, and orientation in space of the orbitals on an atom. Quantum spin is an intrinsic angular momentum. The fourth (व्यञ्जकभावः) is the perception of objects due to confinement by space, time, and described by number, etc. The Vedic Chhanda covers all types of entanglements (छन्दः), and is not restricted to quantum states only.

 

Inertia (संस्कारः) can be of two types: Braahma (ब्राह्म) or Shrauta (श्रौत). The former includes the Sixteen Sanskaras (षोडशसंस्कारः) described in Smritis (स्मृति), which brings in a change of state by improving quality of life forms. The latter is related to application of energy to bring in a change of state among inert objects. Similarly, the Vedic Entanglement (वैदिक छन्दः) has two parts. The one used in sound medium is called Vaachika Chhanda (वाचिकछन्दः), which is prosody and the other used to describe all entanglement (आर्थिकछन्दः).

 

Objects limited in space and time have spread that is perceptible only if they are compounds (from mesons - द्वाणुक- to the whole universe) and reflect light (रूपवत्त्व, अनेकद्रव्यवत्त्व, महत्त्व). We can’t isolate quarks (परिमाण्डल्य), because they are not compounds (एकद्रव्यवत्त्व). Mind (मनस्) is the point from which energy is released. Hence, we can’t see mind. What we call light is really dark (कृष्ण) – we can’t see light directly. We see its effect when it is reflected from some object and infer its existence (शक्तिः कार्यानुमेया हि यद्गतैवोपलभ्यते । तद्गतैवाभ्युपेतव्या स्वाश्रयान्याश्रयापि च).

 

Field (क्षेत्रम् – अन्तरा क्षान्तम् भवति) is a region of space (देशभेदः - आकाशम्), upon entering which we experience a force. The so-called Higg’s field is a myth. In any case, most of the mass comes from strong interaction and contribution if Higg’s field, assuming it is correct is highly insignificant (about 1%). Mass comes from universal principle of entanglement (आर्थिक छन्दः).

 

The universe has two aspects: some are related to every object and most are related to few object (द्वे वावं ब्रह्मणो रूपे मूर्तं चामूर्तं चाथ यन्मूर्तं तदसत्यं यदमूर्तं तत्सत्यं - मैत्रायण्युपनिषत्). Also it manifests itself in two ways: evolution of sound (as described in various Shiksha texts) and evolution of energy into matter (द्वे विद्ये वेदितव्ये तु शब्दब्रह्म परं च यत्। शब्दब्रह्मणि निष्णातः परं ब्रह्माधिगच्छति ॥ - ब्रह्मबिन्दु उपनिषत्). Accordingly, Chhandas can be of two types.

 

I have already described that inertia (संस्कारः - सं सम्यक् + कॄ विक्षे॒पे + भावे घञ् । प्रतियत्नम्, गुणान्तर-आधानम्) is a part of the property of matter (वस्तुधर्मः – quantum numbers) which can be called the fifth quantum number (सञ्चारीभावः – it includes spin, momentum, acceleration and elasticity). The first three quantum numbers are principal, angular or azimuthal (l), magnetic (m) quantum numbers (आश्रयभावः, प्रयोजकभावः, स्थायीभावः). The first three describe the size, shape, and orientation in space of the orbitals on an atom. Quantum spin is an intrinsic angular momentum. The fourth (व्यञ्जकभावः) is the perception of objects due to confinement by space, time, and described by number, etc. The Vedic Chhanda covers all types of entanglements (छन्दः), and is not restricted to quantum states only.

 

According to ancient science, these three: mass वयोनाधः, weight (गुरुत्व) and dimension (विस्तारः) belong to a different classification, which can be said as the fourth quantum number (व्यञ्जकभावः). Spin is a subset of the fifth quantum number (सञ्चारीभावः), of which, inertia is part. Momentum (दोषोपनोदनम्), acceleration (अतिशयाधानम्) and elasticity (स्थितिस्थापकः called हीनाङ्गपूर्त्तीः) are parts of inertia.

 

Everything in the universe (जगत्) is ever moving. But some motions are not apparent (non-inertial frames of reference), because of some force prohibiting (दोषः) it from free flow (inertial frames of reference). When this obstruction is removed due to application of force, weight, fluidity or contact with other objects (संयोगः), the object moves. Since the magnitude of motion is related to its weight (गुरुत्व) and the applied force that breaks the inertia of rest (प्रयत्नादि), it is inertia of motion (वेगः मूर्तिमत्सु पञ्चसु द्रव्येषु निमित्तविशेषात् कर्मणो जायते). The magnitude is called momentum.

 

Application of force changes the earlier inertia because the body reacts to it in specific ways (प्रतियत्न, गुणान्तर आधान). It is always in specific directions (वेगः निमित्तापेक्षात् कर्मणो जायते नियतदिक क्रियाप्रबन्धहेतुः) and changes the velocity shown by momentum. Hence, it is called acceleration (अतिशयाधानम्).

 

Action and reaction are equal and opposite (वेगः संयोगविशेषविरोधी). In not-so-rigid bodies, the inherent nature of its entanglement (छन्दः) opposes the applied force and the body retains its shape (आकृतिः) like a rubber band stretched. After the application of force, the body becomes deficient in its shape (हीनाङ्ग), which is removed after the external force is removed. Hence, it is called removal of the deficiency (हीनाङ्गपूर्त्तीः). This is a type of inertia (प्रतियत्नम्) of the body. The other type of inertia is thought (भावनासंज्ञकस्त्वात्मगुणो दृष्टश्रुतानुभूतेष्वर्थेषु स्मृतिप्रत्यभिज्ञानहेतुर्भवति ज्ञानमद्दुःखादिविरोधी) – the inertia of mind, as mind acts mechanically.